Ap Biology Lab Manual Lab 111
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- Joella Robinson
- 2 years ago
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- Jul 28, 2018 - Manual. Johnston High. School Biology Lab. Biology: AP Biology Lab. Manual Resource Center .
- This is a supplement to the first printing of the AP Biology Lab Manual. Updates to the AP Biology Investigative Lab Manual.
Transcription
Information on Mrs. Chou's Classes. AP Lab Investigation Manual - Student Version - Lab 3. AP Biology Lab 4.doc View Download.
1 AP Biology Laboratory Manual Name: 1
2 AP Biology Laboratory Manual 2015 Table of Contents Safety in the Laboratory 4 Lab Safety Symbols 5 Lab Safety Contract 6 Lab 1 Lab Safety 7 Lab 2 Living Things in Pond Water 10 Lab 3 Human Inheritance 14 Lab 4 Making Karyotypes 16 Lab 5 Studying Genetic Mutations 21 Lab 6 Using and Constructing a Classification Key 26 Lab 7 Classifying Leaves 32 Lab 8 Anatomy of Earthworm 36 Lab 9 Anatomy of Grasshopper 42 Lab 10 Anatomy of Starfish 52 Lab 11 Anatomy of the Frog 57 Lab 12 Anatomy of the Fetal Pig 71 Lab 13 Nutrition and a Balanced Diet 88 Lab 14 Observing Nervous Responses 92 Lab 15 Investigating Senses 95 Lab 16 Examining Bone, Muscle and Cartilage 98 Lab 17 Climate and Biomes 103 Virtual Lab Worksheets Lab 18 Dependent and Independent Variables 111 Lab 19 Mealworm Behavior 116 Lab 20 Enzyme Controlled Reactions 119 Lab 21 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 123 Lab 22 DNA & Genes 126 Lab 23 Punnett Squares 129 Lab 24 Sex-Linked Traits 132 Lab 25 Knocking Out Genes 137 Lab 26 Gene Splicing 141 Lab 27 Tracking Grizzlies 145 Lab 28 Dinosaur Dig 149 Lab 29 Classifying Using Biotechnology 153 Lab 30 Blood Pressure 156 Lab 31 Plant Transpiration 162 Lab 32 Population Biology 166 Lab 33 Model Ecosystems 170 2
3 LabBench Activities LabBench Activity 1 Diffusion & Osmosis 175 LabBench Activity 2 Enzyme Catalysis 177 LabBench Activity 3 Mitosis & Meiosis 179 LabBench Activity 4 Plant Pigments & Photosynthesis 183 LabBench Activity 5 Cell Respiration 186 LabBench Activity 6 Molecular Biology 188 LabBench Activity 7 Genetics of Organisms 194 LabBench Activity 8 Population Genetics 196 LabBench Activity 9 Transpiration 198 LabBench Activity 10 Circulatory Physiology 201 LabBench Activity 11 Animal Behavior 204 LabBench Activity 12 Dissolved Oxygen 207 Math Skills Practice Practice Set 1 Osmosis and Water Potential 210 Practice Set 2 Population Genetics and the Hardy Weinberg Law 211 Practice Set 3 Chi Square Problems 217 Practice Set 4 Population Growth 220 Appendix for AP Biology Equations and Formulas 222 3
4 Safety in the Laboratory Laboratory work is a mandatory part of AP Biology class. All lab work is to be completed in this manual or on additional sheets that your teacher distributes. Always be sure to complete each lab report assigned. For many of the labs you will be working with a partner and for others you will be working alone. Be sure to follow your teacher s directions. General Safety Rules 1. Know the location of emergency and safety equipment in the lab, such as the first-aid kit or fire extinguisher. 2. Be familiar with how to leave the lab in an emergency or during a fire drill. 3. Be prepared for your lab activity when you arrive. Always read the directions before proceeding with any lab exercise. 4. Do not bring any food or drink into the lab. Do not drink out of any lab equipment. Personal Safety Rules 1. Inform your teacher of any medical problems that may affect your safety in doing lab work. Report allergies, asthma, sensitivity to certain chemicals, epilepsy or heart conditions. 2. Make sure articles of clothing will not interfere with lab work or be a fire hazard. Secure or take off a loose tie or jacket. Roll up long sleeves and remove dangling jewelry. 3. Notify your teacher if you wear contact lenses and wear safety goggles when using chemicals to prevent the loss of contact lenses. Lab Safety Procedures 1. Understand the correct lab procedure to be used and be aware of possible hazards. Perform only those lab activities assigned and explained by your teacher. Listen carefully to your teacher s instructions and follow them exactly. 2. Keep the work area clean and neat at all times. Only textbooks, lab manuals or notebooks should be in the work area. Allow yourself time to clean and dry the work area before leaving the lab. Wash your hands after the lab is completed and your work area is clean. 3. Report all accidents, spills, or unusual occurrences to your teacher immediately. Safety Symbols All the investigations in this lab manual have been designed with safety in mind. If you follow the instructions, you should have a safe and interesting year in the laboratory. Before beginning any investigation, make sure you read the safety rules and safety symbols. The safety symbols shown on page 5 are used throughout the lab manual. They appear in the safety section of investigations where specific safety procedures are required. The description of each symbol indicates the precaution(s) you should take whenever you see the symbol in an investigation. 4
5 5
6 Laboratory Safety Contract I,, have read (please print full name) Safety in the Laboratory, understand its contents completely, and agree to demonstrate compliance with all safety rules and guidelines that have been established in each of the following categories: (please check) General Safety Personal Safety Lab Safety Safety Symbols Signature Date 6
7 Name: Date: Period: Lab 1 Recognizing Laboratory Safety Introduction An essential part of biology is working in the lab. You will be learning biology by actively conducting and observing experiments. Most of the lab work you will be doing is safe, however, some of the equipment, chemicals and specimens can be dangerous. Accidents do not just happen in the lab they are caused by carelessness, improper handling of equipment or inappropriate behavior. In this investigation you will learn how to prevent accidents and work safely in the lab. You will review some safety guidelines and become familiar with the location of safety equipment. Problem What are the proper practices for working safely in the lab? Pre-Lab Discussion Read the entire investigation. Then work alone or with a partner to answer the following questions. 1. Why might eating or drinking in the lab be dangerous? 2. How can reading through the entire investigation before beginning the Procedure help prevent accidents? 3. Look around the room. What safety equipment do you recognize? 4. What safety procedure should you follow when cleaning up at the end of an investigation? 5. Can minor safety procedures be skipped in order to finish the investigation before the bell rings? Materials Lab manual Lab safety equipment (for demonstration) Procedure 1. Carefully read the list of lab safety rules. 7
8 2. Safety symbols will be used throughout this manual. Review the symbols to describe what each symbol means
9 Analysis and Conclusions Look at each of the drawings and explain why the lab activities pictured are unsafe
10 Name: Date: Period: Lab 2 Living Things in Pond Water Introduction A pond is a small freshwater lake less than 8 meters deep. In the shallow, quiet water, light penetrates all the way to the bottom. Rooted plants cover most of the bottom. Some live completely submerged and others send leaves and flowers upward to float on the water surface. Plants and tiny plantlike organisms float about, on or near the surface, thriving on the sunlight they receive. The abundant plant life furnishes food to millions of small animals that live on, in or near the plants. Many animals graze on them and others eat the grazers. As you study the organisms in the pond water, try to find out the source of their food. Notice how their bodies are organized. Observe how they use energy and how they respond to changes in their environment. Problem What living things can be found in pond water? Pre-Lab Discussion Read the entire investigation. Then work alone or with a partner to answer the following questions. 1. What types of organisms can be found in pond water? 2. What kinds of algae are usually found in ponds? 3. What nonliving things are essential for the survival of the various organisms in a pond? Materials (per group) Pond culture 1 and 2 Slides Pipettes Compound light microscope Coverslips Tissues or paper towels Hand lens Culture dishes Dissecting probe Safety 10
11 Procedure Part A. Preparation and Preliminary Observations 1. Pond cultures 1 and 2 will be at the teacher s lab table. Observe the materials in pond culture 1 and 2 and try to distinguish nonliving materials from organisms or materials that were once living in each culture. 11
12 2. Using a pipette, draw up water from pond culture 1 and place it in one of the culture dishes. Bring it back to the lab table and place it on a piece of paper labeled Culture 1. Using a new pipette, draw up water from pond culture 2, place it in the other culture dish, bring it back to the lab table and place it on a piece of paper labeled Culture You will be making many wet mounts so keep the pipettes separate one should be used for culture 1 and the other for culture 2. Use only one or two drops of culture on each slide, otherwise it will drip onto the microscope stage. Put a coverslip on each wet mount you prepare, avoiding air bubbles. 4. Use a pencil to make sketches of what you see. Under each drawing, write the magnification used. If an organism is too large, draw it under low power; if it is too small, draw it under high power. Sketches of some of the organisms you might see are shown in Figure After drawing what you observe, wipe the slide and coverslip with a tissue and make another wet mount to see if you can find anything else in the culture. Part B. Pond Surface 1. The surface of a pond is like a very thin skin that small plants and animals use by either resting on it or hanging from its underside. Tiny plantlike organisms, known as algae, float or swim near the surface, carried about by water currents. Algae in ponds are usually colored green or yellow-green. Other algae, the diatoms, are encased in glass shells and are usually golden-brown in color. 2. Examine culture 1 (pond surface water). Make wet mounts and observe them under low and high power. Use the space provided to draw several of the organisms that you see as you view each wet mount from culture Culture 1 might contain snails, various eggs, wormlike animals with breathing tubes, and animals carrying bubbles. It should also have algae floating freely. These might be green or yellow-green, threadlike or netlike. Diatoms on surfaces appear as tiny, geometric figures, alone or in groups. Look for animals feeding on algae. Look for organisms that seem to be swimming about and try to see how they move themselves. 12
13 Part C. Pond Bottom 1. Examine culture 2 (pond bottom). Search for organisms and materials in culture 2. Some will be too large to place on a slide so use the hand lens to examine them and draw them in the space below. 2. Make wet mounts and observe them under low and high power. Use the space provided to draw several of the organisms that you see as you view each wet mount from culture Culture 2 might contain insect larvae with bodies in sections and jointed legs, animals carrying bubbles, wormlike organisms, and snails. Try to find euglena, which are slow-moving, bright green, narrow cells with a red eyespot visible under high power. Search for small dead animals and plants, or their parts. Analysis and Conclusions 1. Why did you keep the samples of the different pond regions separate? Why not mix them? 2. Describe any breathing adaptations that you saw in animal forms. 3. Why might you expect to find animals carrying bubbles both at the surface and at the bottom of a pond? 13
14 Name: Date: Period: Lab 3 Human Inheritance Introduction With an understanding of heredity and probability, biologists have learned about the genetics of many human traits. In many of these traits, several pairs of genes are involved and the pattern of inheritance is complex. For this activity we will assume that the traits we are studying are regulated by the alleles of only one gene, with one allele from the father and one from the mother. Problem How do you determine phenotype and genotype? Procedure Phenotypes and Genotypes of Common Traits You will determine your phenotype and try to determine your genotype for the traits listed in Table 1. Remember, if you show a dominant trait, you may be homozygous or heterozygous for that trait. Suppose, however, that one of your parents shows the recessive trait that would make you heterozygous. If neither of your parents shows the recessive trait, you may not know if you are heterozygous or homozygous. In those cases, put a question mark as the second allele. If you show the recessive trait, record it as the phenotype and genotype, with two recessive alleles. 1. Have your partner check your earlobes. Free earlobes, L, are dominant. People whose earlobes are attached directly to the side of the head have the recessive genotype ll. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Check your eye color. Inheritance of eye color is controlled by multiple genes, but people having homozygous recessive genotype, bb, have blue eyes. People who have dominant allele, B, may have different shades of brown, hazel or green. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Have your partner check your hairline. A widow s peak is a hairline that forms a downward point in the middle of the forehead. This is caused by a dominant allele, W. A smooth hairline is caused by the recessive genotype ww. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Check to see if you can roll your tongue. A dominant allele, R, gives some people the ability to roll their tongues into a U shape when it is extended. People with recessive alleles, rr, cannot roll their tongues. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Place your hands on a flat surface and relax. See if the first joints of your little fingers are bent or straight. A dominant allele, F, results in the end joint of the little finger of each hand bending inward. Straight little fingers are the recessive genotype ff. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Check to see if you have hair on the middle joints of your fingers. Individuals who have hair on the middle joints of their fingers have at least one dominant allele H. Those with recessive alleles, hh, do not have hair on that joint. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Check your hair color. Individuals with red hair have the recessive genotype nn. Those with any other color have at least one dominant allele N. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Check your hair type. Individuals with curly hair have at least one dominant allele C and people with straight hair have the genotype cc. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table Have your partner check your eyelashes. Long eyelashes are the result of the dominant allele S and short eyelashes are the recessive ss. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1. 14
15 Table 1 Trait and Symbols for Genes Phenotype Genotype Shape of ear lobe (L, l) Eye color (B, b) Shape of hairline (W, w) Ability to roll tongue (R, r) Shape of little finger (F, f) Hair on middle joint (H, h) Hair color (N, n) Hair curliness (C, c) Eyelash length (S, s) Analysis and Conclusions 1. Do you think that anyone in the class has all the same traits that you have? Explain your answer? 2. What are the possible genotypes of the parents of an offspring who has brown (Bb) eyes? 3. Can you accurately determine an organism s genotype by observing its phenotype? Explain. 15
16 Name: Date: Period: Lab 4 Making Karyotypes Introduction Several human genetic disorders are caused by extra, missing, or damaged chromosomes. In order to study these disorders, cells from a person are grown with a chemical that stops cell division at the metaphase stage. During metaphase, a chromosome exists as two chromatids attached at the centromere. The cells are stained to reveal banding patterns and placed on glass slides. The chromosomes are observed under the microscope, where they are counted, checked for abnormalities, and photographed. The photograph is then enlarged, and the images of the chromosomes are individually cut out. The chromosomes are identified and arranged in homologous pairs. The arrangement of homologous pairs is called a karyotype. In this investigation, you will use a sketch of chromosomes to make a karyotype. You will also examine the karyotype to determine the presence of any chromosomal abnormalities. Problem How can chromosomes be observed? Pre-Lab Discussion Read the entire investigation. Then work alone or with a partner to answer the following questions. 1. What clues to the presence of certain genetic disorders can be seen in a karyotype? 2. Why might a laboratory worker attempting to diagnose a genetic disorder prefer to work with photographs of chromosomes rather than the chromosomes themselves? 3. Why would it be much more difficult to construct a karyotype of unstained chromosomes? 4. Which pair of chromosomes can contain two very different chromosomes and still be considered normal? 5. How do autosomes differ from sex chromosomes? Materials (per group) Scissors Glue or transparent tape Chromosome handout 16
17 Safety Be careful when handling sharp instruments. Procedure Part A. Analyzing a Karyotype 1. Observe the normal human karyotype in Figure 1. Notice that the two sex chromosomes, pair 23, do not look alike. They are different because this karyotype is of a male, and a male has an X and a Y chromosome. 2. Identify the centromere in each pair of chromosomes. The centromere is the area where each chromosome narrows. Figure 1 Part B. Using a Karyotype to Identify a Genetic Disorder 1. Study the human chromosomes from the handout. 23 chromosomes are numbered 1 through To match homologous chromosomes, look carefully at the unnumbered chromosomes. Note their overall size, the position of the centromere, and the pattern of the light and dark bands. Next to the unnumbered chromosome that is most similar to chromosome number 1, write Repeat step 2 for chromosomes 2 through Use scissors to cut out all the chromosomes from the handout. Tape them to their appropriate places in Figure 2. Note any chromosomal abnormalities. 17
18 Figure 2 18
19 5. Observe the karyotypes in Figures 3 and 4. Note the presence of any abnormalities. 6. Complete Table 1 by recording your observations of the karyotypes shown in Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. Record any evidence of chromosomal abnormalities present in each karyotype. Record the genetic defect, if you know it, associated with each type of chromosomal abnormality present. Figure 3 Figure 4 19
20 Table 1 Analysis and Conclusions 1. Of the four karyotypes that you observed, which was normal? Which showed evidence of an extra chromosome? Which showed evidence of an absent chromosome? 2. What chromosomal abnormality appears in the karyotype in Figure 3? Can you tell from which parent this abnormality originated? Explain your answer. 3. Are chromosomal abnormalities such as the ones shown confined only to certain parts of the body? Explain. 4. Are genetic defects associated with abnormalities of autosomes or of sex chromosomes? Explain. 5. Formulate a question that could be answered by observing chromosomes of different species of animals. 20
21 Name: Date: Period: Lab 5 Studying Genetic Mutations Introduction DNA carries information for the synthesis of all the proteins of an organism. Protein molecules are large and complex, composed of hundreds of amino acids. In each kind of protein, the amino acids are linked in a definite sequence. The sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of he organism. All the different proteins that occur in organisms are composed of only twenty kinds of amino acids. In the first step leading to protein synthesis, DNA is transcribed into a long single-stranded molecule of RNA called messenger RNA (mrna). Ribosomes attach to the mrna and sequences of nucleotides called codons form a pattern or code that specifies the order in which the amino acids are to be linked. As the ribosomes move along the mrna from codon to codon, the appropriate amino acids are brought into place and linked together in a process called translation. Problem How are proteins made from DNA sequences? Procedure Part A. Protein Synthesis During transcription, the DNA double helix unwinds and unzips. The two strands separate as the hydrogen bonds binding the nitrogen bases break. Then, nucleotides present in the cell line up along one strand of the DNA. As mrna forms, uracil (U) matches with adenine (A); cytosine (C) matches with guanine (G). Note: RNA has uracil where DNA has thymine (T). The nucleotides of the newly formed mrna are complementary to the nucleotides of the DNA segment on which it was formed. 1. One strand of DNA has the base sequence: C G A T T G G C A G T C A T. Write the sequence of bases in the complementary strand of mrna that would form next to this DNA strand. The information carried on the mrna is in a code the genetic code. A group of three nucleotides on a molecule of mrna is called a codon; each codon specifies one of the 20 amino acids, except for three codons which are stop signals. There are 64 codons in the genetic code, as shown in Table Use Table 1 to read the codons below. Find the name of the amino acid and write it in the space provided. If the letters code for more than one amino acid, separate the names by dashes. U U A: G A G: U A U C U A: A U C U U G: A A A U U U G G G: C C A G C U A G A G G G U G G C U G U C A: 21
22 Table 1 Molecules of transfer RNA (trna) form in the nucleus. There are twenty types of trna, one for each amino acid. The trna has two ends one carries the amino acid molecule and the other end has a three base segment called the anticodon, which is complementary to a codon on mrna. 3. Determine the anticodon for each codon below. G G U: C G C: A U G: U C G: A A A: C U G: 22
23 Questions 1. Write the order of nucleotides in mrna that would be transcribed from the following strand of DNA. Then list the amino acids coded by that sequence: G T A T A C C A G T C A T T T G T C mrna amino acids 2. Sometimes a mistake occurs in the translation of an mrna strand. Suppose that the reading of the mrna strand in question 1 began, by mistake, at the second nucleotide instead of the first. The first codon would be AUA. Write the sequence of amino acids that would be formed from this mistake. 3. Suppose the bases of the DNA strand in question 1 were not transcribed correctly and the mrna read: C A C A U G G U U A G U A A G C A G How many mistakes were made in the transcription? Write the abbreviation for the amino acids that would be formed by translation of this mrna. Part B. Mutations There are two types of mutations, small-scale gene mutations and large-scale chromosomal mutations. You will do gene (point) mutations in this part of the lab. Since mrna is read in threes (codons), an addition or deletion of a base changes the reading frame of the sequence. An insertion shifts the reading frame to the right and a deletion shifts the reading frame to the left. For the insertion, insert a letter C after the first G. For the deletion, delete the first G. Original DNA: TAC GGA CGA TCT CAG GAG CCT ATA ATC Insertion DNA: Mutated mrna: Mutated Amino Acids: Original Amino Acids: Met Pro Ala Arg Val Leu Gly Tyr STOP Original DNA: TAC GGA CGA TCT CAG GAG CCT ATA ATC Deletion DNA: Mutated mrna: Mutated Amino Acids: Original Amino Acids: Met Pro Ala Arg Val Leu Gly Tyr STOP 23
24 Usually a frame shift mutation results in the synthesis of a nonfunctional protein. Why do you think your mutated proteins might not be functional? A different type of gene mutation is called base substitution. It is the simplest type of mutation where a nucleotide pair is replaced with a different nucleotide pair. Base substitution GAC GGC One type of base substitution is called transverse mutation. Transversion mutation happens when one purine (A, G) is swapped with a pyrimidine (C, T). Purine Pyrimidine GAC TAC Pyrimidine Purine GAC GAG Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a purine pyrimidine transversion mutation. Change only one purine (A or G) into a pyrimidine (C or T) and circle the mutated mrna and mutated amino acid. Original DNA: TAC CAT GCA GAT CTG GCC CAG TTC ATC Transversion DNA: Mutated mrna: Mutated Amino Acids: Original Amino Acids: Met Val Arg Leu Asp Arg Val Lys STOP The opposite of transversion mutations is transition mutations. A transition mutation happens when one purine is swapped with the other purine or when one pyrimidine is swapped with the other pyrimidine. Purine Purine GAC AAC Pyrimidine Pyrimidine GAC GAT Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a purine purine transition mutation. Change only one purine (A) into the other (G) and circle the mutated mrna and mutated amino acid. Original DNA: TAC GTC GCT CAA CGG GAC CTG ACC ACT Transition DNA: Mutated mrna: Mutated Amino Acids: Original Amino Acids: Met Gln Arg Val Ala Leu Asp Trp STOP 24
25 A third type of base substitution is called silent mutation. Silent mutation happens when one base in a codon is changed but both code for the same amino acid. DNA CTT CTG Amino Acid Leu Leu Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a silent mutation. All you have to do is change one DNA base but the amino acid stays the same. Write each codon per line and circle the mutated DNA base. Original DNA: TAC CAT TCT CGG TGT AAA AGG GCG ATT Transition DNA: Mutated mrna: Mutated Amino Acids: Original Amino Acids: Met Val Arg Ala Thr Phe Ser Arg STOP A base mutation that creates a new stop codon in place of an amino acid is called a nonsense mutation. Silent mutation happens when one base in a codon is changed but both code for the same amino acid. DNA TGT TGA Amino Acid Cys STOP Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a nonsense mutation. All you have to do is change one DNA base to create a new stop codon (somewhere before the existing STOP codon). Write each codon per line and circle the mutated amino acid. Original DNA: TAC GGT AAT CAA ATA GAA CCT GAG ACT Transition DNA: Mutated mrna: Mutated Amino Acids: Original Amino Acids: Met Pro Leu Val Tyr Leu Gly Leu STOP Explain the difference between a frame shift mutation and a base substitution mutation. 25
26 Name: Date: Period: Lab 6 Using and Constructing a Classification Key Introduction All cultures have developed names for the living things found in their environments. When various everyday names are used for the same organism, confusion is possible. So, scientists have developed an international system for naming and classifying all organisms. Identification guides, called keys, have been developed to help people recognize and identify organisms according to their scientific names. Classification keys are usually dichotomous in arrangement. The word dichotomous comes from the word dichotomy, meaning two opposite parts or categories. A dichotomous key gives the reader a series of opposing descriptions of basic features of an organism. The reader studies the specimen and selects the descriptions that apply to it until reaching a statement that characterizes only one species and names it. In this investigation you will use a typical dichotomous key to identify the genus and species of several different salamanders. Then you will create your own dichotomous key to categorize a diverse group of wildflowers. Problem How is a dichotomous key used to distinguish among similar organisms? Pre-Lab Discussion Read the entire investigation. Then work alone or with a partner to answer the following questions. 1. How many choices does a dichotomous key provide at each step? 2. What are some of the apparent differences among the salamanders illustrated? 3. Based on Figure 2, what is a distinguishing characteristic of the members of the genus Ambystoma? 4. What might be a good strategy for beginning to create a classification key for the six types of wildflowers shown in the diagram? 5. If you were to use live flowers instead of diagrams, what other characteristic could you use to identify the flowers? 26
27 Procedure Part A. Using a Classification Key 1. Examine the drawings of the salamanders in Figure 1. Choose one to identify by using the key. Figure 1 2. Use the dichotomous key (Figure 2) to determine the genus and species of that salamander. Begin by reading statements 1a and 1b. One of the statements describes the salamander you chose, the other does not. Follow the directions for the statement that applies to that salamander and continue following the correct statements until you have identified it. Record the scientific and common name of the salamander in Table Repeat step 2 for each of the other salamanders in Figure 1. 27
28 1 a) Hind limbs absent Siren intermedia, siren b) Hind limbs present Go to 2 2 a) External gills present in adults Necturus maculosus, mud puppy b) External gills absent in adults Go to 3 3 a) Large size (over 7 cm long in Go to 4 Figure 1) b) Small size (under 7 cm long in Go to 5 Figure 1) 4 a) Body background black, large Ambystoma tigrinum, tiger salamander white spots variable in size completely covering body and tail b) Body background black, small Ambystoma maculatum, spotted salamander round white spots in a row along each side from eye to tip of tail 5 a) Body background black with white Go to 6 spots b) Body background light color with Go to 7 dark spots and/or lines on body 6 a) Small white spots on black background in a row along each side from head to tip of tail b) Small white spots scattered throughout a black background extending from head to tip of tail 7 a) Large irregular white spots on a black background extending from head to tip of tail b) No large irregular black spots on a light background 8 a) Round spots scattered along back and sides of body, tail flattened like a tadpole b) Without round spots and tail not flattened like a tadpole 9 a) Two dark lines bordering a broad light middorsal stripe with a narrow median dark line extending from the head onto the tail b) Without two dark lines running the length of the body 10 a) A light stripe running the length of the body and bordered by dark pigment extending downward on the sides Figure 2 b) A light stripe extending the length of the body without dark pigment on the sides Ambystoma jeffersonianum, Jefferson salamander Plethodon glutinosus, slimy salamander Ambystoma opacum, marbled salamander Go to 8 Triturus viridescens, newt Go to 9 Eurycea bislineata, two-lined salamander Go to 10 Plethodon cinereus, red-backed salamander Hemidactylium scutatum, four-toed salamander 28
29 Table 1 Number Genus and species Common name Part B. Constructing a Classification Key 1. Examine Figure 3, which shows some common North American wildflowers. Note different characteristics in flower shape, number of petals, and leaf number and shape. Figure 3 29
30 2. Use the space below to construct a dichotomous classification key for the wildflowers in Figure 3. Be sure to use enough pairs of statements to have a final positive statement for each to identify each of the six flowers shown. Use the key for salamanders as a model for developing your wildflowers key. 3. Check the usefulness of your wildflower key by letting another student see if he can use it to identify each pictured flower. Wildflower Classification Key 1 a) b) 2 a) b) 3 a) b) 4 a) b) 5 a) b) Analysis and Conclusions 1. What are some examples of basic differences among the salamanders pictured? 2. Do the classification keys you have just worked with have any limitations in distinguishing between species? 3. Do any of the wildflowers shown in Figure 3 appear to be similar enough to be in the same genus? 30
31 4. What characteristics should be very similar in order to support an inference that two plants are closely related? 5. Could the three salamanders from the genus Ambystoma be more closely related that Necturus, the mud puppy, and Triturus, the newt? 31
32 Name: Date: Period: Lab 7 Classifying Leaves Background Over the centuries, people who study the natural world have tried to sort, or classify, organisms into groups whose members show a logical relationship to each other. The science of classification is called taxonomy. One of the products of taxonomy is the development of classification keys. A classification key is an organized list of characteristics that can be used to identify organisms. Such keys have been made for almost every group of organisms in the world. Objectives Identify structural characteristics of leaves and find differences between leaves. Construct a classification key based on the characteristics of leaves. Procedure Part A. Studying Leaf Structure 1. Look at Figure 1, which shows a leaf from a willow tree and a leaf from a chestnut oak tree. Compare the shapes of these leaves. Notice that the willow leaf is long and pointed, while the chestnut oak leaf is oval. 2. Compare the edges of the two leaves shown in Figure 1. Notice that the edges of the willow leaf are notched, while the edges of the chestnut oak leaf are wavy. Some other kinds of leaves have edges that are lobed, or deeply indented and others have smooth edges. 32
33 3. Compare the patterns of the veins of the two leaves shown in Figure 1. As you can see, they are similar: both leaves have a network of small veins that branch off a single, main vein. Compare this pattern of veins, called pinnate-netted, to the two other vein patterns shown in Figure 2. Notice that the veins in a palmate pattern start at the base of the leaf and extend outward, as fingers extend outward from the palm of the hand. The terms palmate and pinnate also refer to other leaf characteristics. Leaves that are lobed show one of two patterns, palmate or pinnate. 4. Compare the leaves of the sweet gum and the post oak, shown in Figure 3. Notice that the sweet gum leaf is palmately lobed, and the post oak is pinnately lobed. So far you have observed simple leaves (in one piece). Sometimes leaves are divided into smaller segments, called leaflets. A leaf that is divided in this way is called a compound leaf. Compound leaves show one of two patterns, palmate or pinnate. 5. Look at the leaflets of the clover and tick trefoil, shown in Figure 4. Notice that the clover leaf is palmately compound and the tick trefoil is pinnately compound. Part B. Constructing a Key 1. In order to construct a key of leaves, you will need to differentiate between the leaves. The key that you write should make it possible for someone to identify the seven leaves shown in Figure Remember that all steps will contain two contrasting statements. Use the leaf characteristics you learned from Part A to write the statements for each step. If a statement in any step leads you to more than one leaf, you will need further steps to separate those leaves. For these cases, indicate the number of the next step. If a statement in any step leads you to only one leaf, you have identified that leaf. Write the genus name of the plant. When you have identified and written in the names of all seven plants, you have finished your key. 3. Complete your key. The first step has been filled in already. You may not need to use all the lines provided. If you need more lines, use a separate sheet of paper to write them. 33
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35 1 a) leaves simple Go to step 2 b) leaves compound Go to step 3 2 a) b) 3 a) b) 4 a) b) 5 a) b) 6 a) b) 7 a) b) 8 a) b) 9 a) b) 10 a) b) 4. To check your key, select one of the leaves and see if the key leads you to the correct identity. For Further Investigation Collect a few leaves from trees and other plants you see every day. Before you start collecting, make sure you can identify poison ivy and poison oak to avoid touching them! After collecting at least 8 different leaves, try to identify them. Take pictures of the leaves or glue them to sheets of paper. Write the common name as well as genus and species name for each of the leaves you have collected. Try to create a classification key for the leaves you have collected. 35
36 Name: Date: Period: Lab 8 Anatomy of Earthworm 36
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42 Name: Date: Period: Lab 9 Anatomy of Grasshopper and Crayfish 42
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52 Name: Date: Period: Lab 10 Anatomy of Starfish 52
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57 Name: Date: Period: Lab 11 Anatomy of the Frog 57
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71 Name: Date: Period: Lab 12 Anatomy of the Fetal Pig 71
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88 Name: Date: Period: Lab 13 Nutrition and a Balanced Diet Introduction High fat intake, especially saturated fats which are found in animal products such as meat and butter, is linked to obesity and cardiovascular disease. Although cholesterol in an essential compound, it also can contribute to the buildup of deposits that harden and narrow the arteries (atherosclerosis) and this condition can lead to other conditions including heart attack and stroke. How does one know exactly how much fat is considered to be high fat intake? The answer to that question is not an easy one to find, especially since every individual has a unique metabolism. The best way to maintain a balanced diet would be to follow the Food Guide Pyramid (Figure 1) that nutritionists have created. The Food Guide Pyramid classifies foods into six groups and expresses a simple idea you should eat a variety of foods each day and limit your intake of fatty, sugary foods. Problem How do you calculate calorie intake and body mass index? Figure 1 88
89 Procedure Part A. Calculate calories 1. Recommended guidelines of nutritionists: limiting daily fat intake to no more than 30% of total calories and no more than 10% of total calories should be from saturated fats. Use the table below to answer the following questions. 2. To find total calories, add the total calories (from the table) for each item listed. 3. To convert grams of fat to calories, multiply the number of grams by To convert grams of carbohydrates to calories, multiply the number of grams by To find percentage of calories from fat (or saturated fat), first convert the grams of fat to calories. Then divide that number by the total number of calories and multiply the result by 100. For example: peanut butter has 95 calories per tbsp. Since there are 8 grams of fat, calories from fat = 8 x 9 = 72. The percentage of calories from fat would be (72/95) x 100 = 75.8% of the calories are from fat. 89
90 Questions 1. Suppose you ate a 3 oz. cheeseburger on a roll, 20 french fries, a 12 oz. soda, a piece of cake, and 3 oz. of ice cream. Calculate the following: Total calories Percentage from fat Percentage from saturated fat Is this meal within the recommended guidelines? 2. Suppose your lunch was a 3 oz. tuna sandwich on 2 slices of white bread with one tablespoon of mayonnaise, one cup of tomato soup, a mixed salad (no dressing), 8 oz. of skim milk, and an apple. Calculate the following: Total calories Percentage from fat Percentage from saturated fat Is this meal within the recommended guidelines? Which item contributed most to the percentage of fat in this meal? Part B. Calculate Your Body Mass Index 1. Fifty-five percent of adults in America are considered to be overweight. Your BMI will tell you whether or not you fall into this category. Use the following formula: (weight in pounds / height 2 in inches) x = BMI. 2. The federal guidelines are as follows: 25 or below is normal weight, from 25 to 29 is overweight and 30 or higher is obese. Questions 1. Compute your BMI: 2. How might a person with a BMI of 27 reduce his or her BMI? Consider both nutritional intake and physical activity. 3. If someone has a BMI of 22, how do you suppose his/her calorie intake compares with calorie expenditure? 90
91 4. Since 1960, the population of obese individuals in the U.S. has risen dramatically. Formulate a hypothesis that might explain this. Part C. Reading Food Labels Carefully examine the nutritional information on the food label shown below. Based on the information on the label, answer the following questions. Questions 1. Calculate the daily value in grams for total carbohydrate and dietary fiber. 2. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many grams of fat would you be eating? 3. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many grams of protein would you be eating? 4. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many calories from fat would you get? 5. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many calories from carbohydrates would you get? 6. Based on the data, which food do you think has more calories: one with 8 grams of fat or 8 grams of carbohydrates? Explain your answer. 91
92 Name: Date: Period: Lab 14 Observing Nervous Responses Introduction The nervous system is a series of conducting tissues that carries impulses to all parts of the body. Your nervous system initiates many types of reflex actions. When you touch a hot object, you immediately pull your hand away, but you are unable to stop or control it. How do reflex actions occur? When your hand touches a hot object, for example, heat receptors in the skin send an impulse to the muscles of the arm to contract. The impulse travels along the sensory neurons, to the spinal cord, across a synapse, and stimulates a motor neuron. The impulse leaves the spinal cord, passes back to the same nerve and back to the arm muscles, causing them to contract and pull your hand away. This pathway is called a reflex arc. Because the reflex arc involves only the spinal cord and not the brain, a reflex action occurs in a matter of a fraction of a second. You are not able to control a reflex it happens automatically. In a nonreflex response, an impulse must travel to the brain. The brain interprets the stimulus and initiates an appropriate response. In this case, the time it takes to respond is measurably longer than the time required for a reflex arc. A person s reaction time can be measured by how quickly he or she can perceive a stimulus and then react to it. Driving a car and playing tennis are examples of activities in which reaction times is very important. In this investigation, you will observe two reflex actions and measure your reaction time. Problem Can you control reflex actions? How can you measure reaction time? Pre-Lab Discussion Read the entire investigation. Then work alone or with a partner to answer the following questions. 1. What data will you record in Table 2? 2. What is another name for an involuntary or automatic response to a stimulus? 3. Why do you put your elbow on the table when you are catching the meter stick? Materials (per group) Meter stick 92
93 Safety This experiment involves physical contact. Avoid this experiment if a problem with the knee or hand exists. Procedure Part A. Reflexes 1. Sit on the lab stool 2. Cross your left leg over your right. 3. Have a member of your group tap your knee firmly, slightly below the knee cap, with the side of his hand, as shown in Figure 1. CAUTION: be sure the knee is not hit hard. A firm, quick tap is sufficient. Record your observations. 4. Repeat steps 1 to 3. This time, try to stop your knee from jerking. Record your observations. 5. Reverse roles and repeat steps 1 to 4. Figure 1 Figure 2 Table 1 Stimulus Knee tapped Observations Knee tapped, trying to stop it from jerking Part B. Reaction Time 1. Rest your elbow on a table and extend your arm over its side as shown in Figure 2 2. Have a group member hold a meter stick in the air, with the 0-cm line between the thumb and index finger of your extended hand. 93
94 3. Have the group member drop the meter stick without advance notice. Try to catch it between your thumb and index finger as quickly as possible. 4. In Data Table 2, record in centimeters the position of your thumb and index finger. This is the distance the meter stick fell before you caught it. 5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 three more times. Table 2 Trial Distance (in centimeters) Analysis and Conclusions 1. What happened to your knee when it was tapped? 2. Could you prevent the knee jerk? Explain you answer. 3. Is catching the meter stick a voluntary reaction or a reflex? Explain your answer. 4. What was the average distance the meter stick fell in your four trials? 5. In catching the meter stick, were your reactions faster or slower than those of your classmates? How do you know? 6. Suggest some possible ways that reflex arcs could be advantageous to a species. 94
95 Name: Date: Period: Lab 15 Investigating Senses Introduction Your senses provide your brain with information about what is happening both inside and outside your body. When a sense receptor is stimulated, it sends nerve impulses to the brain for interpretation. Various kinds of sense receptors are located throughout the body. They range from tiny nerve endings in the skin to highly specialized organs, such as the eyes and ears. Each type of sense receptor responds only to a certain type of stimulus. Human senses include sight, touch, smell, taste and hearing. Problem How do sense receptors work? Materials (per group) Toothpicks Cups for water Bitter solution Meter stick Salt solution Sour solution Cotton swabs Sugar solution Procedure Every person has a dominant eye. The dominant eye takes over when focusing on something. In most people, the right eye is dominant. 1. Make a circle with your right thumb and forefinger. With both eyes open, look at the object across the room through the circle. Have your arm extended fully. First close your left eye and look at the object. Does the object appear in the center of the circle? 2. Next close your right eye and look at the object. Does the object appear in the center of the circle? The dominant eye will be the one for which the object remains in the center of the circle. Which eye is your dominant eye? The blind spot is the place on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye. There are no rods or cones in this area, so no vision occurs at the blind spot. Both right and left eyes have blind spots. 3. Cover your left eye. Then hold your book about 15 cm away and focus on the star in Figure 1. Figure 1 95
96 4. Continue to look at the star, and slowly move your book away from you. What happens to the dot to the right of the star as you move your book away? At about what distance from your eye does this occur? 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4, but cover your right eye and stare at the dot with your left. What happens to the star as you move your book away? At about what distance? Touch receptors are not evenly distributed throughout the skin. They are more heavily concentrated in some areas than in others. 6. Tell your lab partner to close his eyes. Use two toothpicks to gently touch your partner s skin in the areas shown in Table 1. Start with the toothpicks about 1 mm apart. Gradually increase the distance between the toothpicks. Note the distance at which your partner can tell that there are two toothpicks. Record the distance at which the subject feels two toothpick points in each area in Table 1. Table 1 Back of hand Palm of hand Fingertip Lip Back of neck Area Distance Apart (in mm) 7. Switch roles and repeat step 6. In which areas listed in Table 1 are touch receptors most concentrated? Figure 2 96
97 The taste receptors on your tongue can detect four different tastes: salty, bitter, sweet and sour. The receptors for each taste are located on certain parts of the tongue. 8. Dip a clean cotton swab into the salt solution. Dab all of the areas of your tongue indicated in Figure 2 but do not close your mouth. In Table 2, record a plus (+) sign if taste is perceived in that area and a minus (-) sign if it is not. Table 2 Taste Edge Back center Salty Sweet Bitter Sour Front center Tip The flavor of food that is perceived by the brain is a combination of taste and smell. Some foods cannot be distinguished by taste alone. 9. Blindfold your partner and have him hold his nose. Feed your partner either a piece of apple or onion. Make sure he does not let go of his nose! Can your partner identify the food? 10. Switch roles and repeat step 9. Analysis and Conclusions 1. Why do you not notice the blind spot in the course of normal vision? 2. Explain why there are differences in the results in Table Can you think of a reason why some body parts should be more sensitive to touch than others? 4. Explain why food is often tasteless to a person with a cold? 97
98 Name: Date: Period: Lab 16 Examining Muscle, Bone and Cartilage Introduction The tissues involved in the movement and support of vertebrates are muscle, bone and cartilage. The contraction of muscle cells produces motion. Humans and other vertebrates have three types of muscle: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Each is composed of a distinct type of cell specialized for the type of motion it provides. Contraction of skeletal muscle produces body movements. Smooth muscles are located in the walls of the digestive tract, blood vessels, and other internal organs. They are specialized for slow, prolonged contractions. The heart is made up of cardiac muscle and is specialized to beat rhythmically and continuously. Bone and cartilage are the hardest tissues in the body. Humans and most other vertebrates have internal skeletons composed mainly of bone. The bone supports the body, gives it shape, and protects internal organs. Most skeletons also contain cartilage. In fact, human skeleton is initially formed of cartilage which is gradually replaced by bone. Cartilage is found in adult humans between the vertebrae of the spinal column, at the tips of the ribs and other bones, and in the nose, ears and larynx. Some lower vertebrates, such as the shark and the lamprey eel, have skeletons composed entirely of cartilage. Problem What does muscle, bone and cartilage look like? Materials (per group) Compound light microscope Prepared slides of skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, bone and cartilage Procedure Part A. Muscle Tissue Most muscle cells are long and thin. Skeletal muscle tissue consists of bundles of fused cells called fibers. Fibers display a definite pattern of banding. Because of banding, or striations, skeletal muscle is also known as striated muscle. The light and dark bands result from an overlapping arrangement of the tiny filaments that make up muscle tissue. Movement of filaments causes the muscle to contract. 1. Observe a prepared slide of skeletal muscle under low power. Make a drawing in the space below. 98
99 2. Switch to high power. Examine the skeletal muscle fibers. Draw skeletal muscle fibers as seen under high power, including striations. Smooth muscle tissue does not have the striped appearance of skeletal muscle. 3. Observe a prepared slide of smooth muscle tissue under low power. Draw what you see. 4. Switch to high power. Examine the smooth muscle cells and make a drawing of several smooth muscle cells under high power. Cardiac muscle tissue appears striated like skeletal muscle, but the cells have connecting branches. The nuclei are located in the center of the cells. Intercalated discs appear between cells. 5. Observe a prepared slide of cardiac muscle tissue under low power. Make a drawing of what you see under low power. 99
100 6. Switch to high power. Then examine the cardiac muscle cells. Draw cardiac muscle as seen under high power. Part B. Bone and Cartilage Tissue The matrix, or intercellular material, of bone is very hard and composed mainly of calcium compounds. Bone cells, called osteocytes, are embedded in the matrix in spaces called lacunae. A system of canals, the Haversian canals, forms passageways through the bone for blood vessels and nerves. Lacunae containing osteocytes are arranged in concentric rings around each Haversian canal. The cells are connected to the Haversian canal and to each other by smaller canals called canaliculi. 1. Observe a prepared slide of bone under low power. Try to identify the lacunae and the Haversian canals. Make a drawing of bone as seen under low power Switch to high power. Observe the Haversian canal systems. Note the smaller canals connecting the lacunae and the Haversian canals. Draw a Haversian canal system.
101 Cartilage is more flexible than bone. It can take a great deal of stress. Cartilage cells are called chondrocytes. They are found in cavities called lacunae within the flexible, elastic matrix. Unlike bone, cartilage has no blood vessels. The cells get needed materials by diffusion from adjacent blood vessels. 3. Observe a prepared slide of cartilage under low power. Make a drawing of what you see. 4. Switch to high power. Then examine the cartilage structure. Draw a section of cartilage. Label the structures you see. 101
102 Analysis and Conclusions 1. Describe the shape and general arrangement of the fibers in skeletal muscle tissue. 2. Describe the general appearance of a smooth muscle cell. 3. Describe the general appearance of a cardiac muscle cell. 4. Describe a Haversian canal system in bone. 102
103 Name: Date: Period: Lab 17 Climate and Biomes Background A biome is defined as a large geographic region that has a particular type of climax community. Biomes are identified by the characteristic plants that dominate the landscape (such as grasslands) or by physical features and climate (such as deserts or tundra). While you are probably familiar with many of the biomes of the world, you may not know what causes biomes to exist. The kinds of plants and animals that coexist and survive in a particular area are determined by the soil, topography, and climate in that area. Biomes take many years to establish. Keep in mind that their boundaries are not as distinct as we would like to think of them, and actually blend into each other. Objectives In this lab you will: 1. Investigate some of the physical processes that determine climate. 2. Graph climate data from different places. 3. Classify climate graphs into general biome categories. 4. Use your graphs to compare various biomes. Procedures and Observations Part I. Latitude and Radiant Energy Because the earth is shaped like a sphere, the sun s rays strike the earth at different angles. Look at Figure 1. Although the amount of energy striking points A, B, and C is equal, the amount that is absorbed depends on the angle of the sun s rays. Consider the effect that latitude has on radiant energy (heat) absorption. a. Why is more radiant energy absorbed at A than at B or C? b. What immediate effect would the amount of radiant energy striking a part of the earth have on that place? 103
104 c. In general, what happens to temperature as one moves north or south of the equator? Part II. Effect of Large Bodies of Water Land warms and cools quickly. Places near the middle of a continent will experience temperature extremes hot summers and cold winters. Water, however, warms and cools more slowly than land. In fact, ocean temperatures in a given region do not vary much during the year. This causes the temperatures in coastal areas (where the wind blows off the water) and on islands to be consistent throughout the year. Ye tera ghar ye mera ghar movie download 720p. Large lakes and oceans also add humidity to the air and increase precipitation. Lake effect snow results from cold air blowing across a large lake, gathering moisture and then, upon further cooling, dropping moisture in the form of snow on the shoreline and slightly inland. a. In which of the cities shown in Figure 2 would the most consistent temperatures be found? b. Where would extremes in temperature be expected? c. Where would the most precipitation be expected? d. Where would precipitation likely fall as Lake Effect snow? 104
105 Part III. Mountain Effects The most obvious mountain effect on climate is the elevation effect. As elevation increases, average temperature decreases. a. Would you expect Seattle or Snoqualmi Pass to have a higher annual average temperature? b. How is altitude on a mountain similar to the effect of latitude in Part I? When moist air from over the ocean is blown inland toward a mountainous area, the air is pushed up by the mountain and cooled. Cooling causes condensation and so rain or snow falls on the mountainside close to the ocean. By the time the air moves over the top of the mountain, it has lost its moisture. Moving down the other side of the mountain, the air is warmed. It becomes a warm, dry wind. c. Which place shown in Figure 3 would have the greatest annual precipitation? d. Which place would have the lowest annual precipitation? e. Which place would have the most snowfall? Part IV. Graphing Climate Data Scientists often put data into graphic form for analysis. This makes the information easier to interpret and understand. Study the data in Table 1, which was collected from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 105
106 Table 1 Temperature ( C) (boldface top number) Month Rainfall/Precipitation (cm) (bottom number) J F M A M J J A S O N D Portland, OR Pt. Barrow, AK Santa Monica, CA Des Moines, IA Minneapolis, MN Wichita, KS Phoenix, AZ Nashville, TN Winnipeg, Manitoba Fairbanks, AK New Orleans, LA Pittsburgh, PA a. Use the data in Table 1 to make graphs of average temperature and average precipitation versus month of the year for each city. A sample graph for Portland, Oregon, is shown below. On the next pages, label each graph with the city whose weather data is plotted. 106
107 Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for 107
108 Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for Graph of Climate Data for 108
109 Use your graphs to classify each city in a biome. Consider the range of temperatures and the total amount of precipitation. b. Complete Table 2 by filling in the column marked Examples with the name of the cities which fit in each biome. Table 2 Name Yearly Average Rainfall/ Precipitation Yearly Temperature Range (winter lows and summer highs) Tundra 1 12 cm/yr. Very cold winters ( 28 C) Summers (3 12 C) Taiga Far north (8 cm) West (40 cm) Central (50 cm) Cold winters ( 25 C) Short summers (20 C) Temperate Deciduous Forest Temperature Grassland Prairie Mid-Latitude Rain Forest cm/yr. Cold winters ( 10 C) Warm summers (26 C) cm/yr. Cold winters ( 5 C) Warm summers (28 C) cm/yr. Small year-round variance Winters (2 C) Summers (20 C) Chaparral Dry summers (0.3 cm) Wet winters (3.5 cm) Desert Less than 25 cm/yr. Winters (8 C) Summers (39 C) Cool winters (12 C) Warm summers (20 C) Examples Analysis and Interpretations 1. Look at the graphs of Pt. Barrow, Fairbanks, Winnipeg, and Minneapolis. Locate them on a map. Explain how the temperature and precipitation change with latitude. 2. Graph the data given on the next page for Walla Walla, Washington. Then compare this graph carefully with the Portland graph. Locate these two cities on a map. Explain the differences in yearly temperature range and precipitation. 109
110 3. Which of the locations was difficult to place into a biome? Why? 4. What seems to be the difference between the graphs of Des Moines and Nashville? Is this enough to separate the two places into separate biomes? 5. Graph the data given below for Chicago, IL. In what biomes might Chicago be classified? 110
111 Name: Date: Period: Lab 18 Virtual Lab: Dependent and Independent Variables 1. ECB refers to: a. A genetically engineered plant that is resistant to insect pests b. Edible corn byproducts c. An insect pest that reduces corn yield d. European corn borer e. c and d 2. How many days are required for a corn seed to become a mature plant with maximum weight kernels ready to be harvested? a. about 23 b. about 65 c. about 140 d. about BT Corn refers to corn that: a. Has been infested with insect pests b. Has been infected with bacteria c. Is resistant to ECB d. Is not affected by pesticides 4. BT is: a. A stomach poison produced by bacteria b. A genetically engineered corn product c. A bacterium carried by the European corn borer d. A bacterium that has a gene for producing Cry proteins 5. Creation of BT corn requires genetic material from all of the following except: a. European corn borer b. Bacillus thuringiensis c. a corn plant d. all of the above contribute genetic material to the production of BT corn 111
112 Table 1: Average Yield for each seed variety at no, low, and high infestation levels Seed Variety BT 123 Level of ECB Infestation None Pot 1 Yield Pot 2 Yield Pot 3 Yield Average Yield Low High BT 456 None Low High Golden None Low High Super Harvest None Low High 112
113 Table 2: % Reduction in yield for each seed variety at high levels of infestation (transfer data on average yield with no infestation and high infestation from Table 1 to Table 2) BT 123 Seed Variety Avg. Yield with No Infestation Avg. Yield with High Infestation % Reduction In Yield BT 456 Golden Super Harvest 6. For each seed variety, why did you need to collect data from 3 pots for each infestation level to obtain reliable data? 7. Which seed variety has the highest yield under conditions of no infestation? 8. Which transgenic seed variety was most resistant to the ECB at high infestation levels? 9. Which non-transgenic seed variety was most resistant to the ECB at high infestation levels? 10. Compare the yield of Super Harvest seeds and BT 123 seeds under conditions of no infestation. Is there any difference in the avg. yield? 113
114 11. If you compared one pot of Super Harvest and one pot of BT 123 with no infestation, would you expect the yield of each pot to be within 0.5g? Explain your answer. 12. A farmer decides to plant 90% of one field with BT 123 seeds and the remaining 10% of the field with a different seed variety. He hopes this will slow the evolutionary development of BT resistant insects. Which seed variety should he use the 10% of his field that is not planted with BT 123 seeds? Explain your answer. Journal Questions: 1. Describe the effects of the ECB infestations you used. Were all corn varieties equally effective at controlling the ECB? How do you know? 2. If there was no ECB infestation in a certain year, would a farmer gain or lose financially by planting Bt corn? Explain why. 3. What might happen if Bt corn affects non-target organisms such as beneficial insects or harmless insects? 114
115 4. What might happen if ECB became resistant to Bt? 5. Discuss possible benefits and drawbacks of a transgenic organism such as Bt corn? 6. A farmer planted a field of Bt 123 corn and wants to estimate the yield in terms of bushels per acre. He counts 22 ears in 1/1000 of an acre. He determines that each ear has about 700 kernels on average. He also knows that a bushel contains about 90,000 kernels on average. What is the farmer's estimate of yield in bushels/acre? 115
116 Name: Date: Period: Lab 19 Virtual Lab: Mealworm Behavior What are the two types of innate behaviors? 2. What is the simplest type of innate behavior? a. Learned behaviors b. Automatic responses to stimuli c. Responses to stimuli that bypass the brain d. Automatic responses that do not bypass the brain e. b and c f. b and d 3. List one instinctive human behavior and one reflexive human behavior. Table 1: Record your data for each stimulus applied to the mealworm. Stimulus Predicted Behavior Actual Behavior Type of Behavior Petri dish with light and dark colored sides Piece of cooked macaroni Touched by a Feather Beam of light shines on mealworm s head Drops of ammonia placed near mealworm A piece of uncooked macaroni Touched by a metal paper clip Drops of apple juice placed near mealworm Air blown on mealworm s head Slice of apple introduced Alarm beeps near the mealworm Cool water dropped on the mealworm Bran flakes are introduced A piece of banana is introduced
117 4. Review your recorded stimuli responses. What do you notice the instinctive behaviors have in common? What do you notice the reflexive behaviors have in common? 5. Select a two new stimuli you would like to test, one you think will results from reflexive behavior, and one you think results from instinctive behavior: a. What is the stimulus you think results from reflexive behavior? b. Why? c. What is the stimulus you think results from instinctive behavior? d. Why? 6. Read the following hypothesis, and then answer the questions: After observing that mealworms move toward cooked macaroni, but away from uncooked macaroni, you form the following hypothesis: Mealworms only move toward food that is moist You decide to test your hypothesis with dry bran flakes. You use a mealworm exposed to cooked macaroni as your control group, and a mealworm exposed to bran flakes as your experimental group. a. What is your independent variable? b. What is your dependent variable? c. Write out your prediction (a prediction is an if.then. statement based on your hypothesis) d. Return to the lab simulation, and reset the stimuli until Bran Flakes are introduced comes up as a stimulus. Make your prediction and watch the video associated with the bran flakes stimulus. e. Was your hypothesis supported? f. Write one question that this raises in your mind. Write a new hypothesis based on this question and describe a new independent variable you could test to answer this question. 117
118 Journal Questions: 1. What is the difference between a reflex behavior and instinctive behavior? Describe reflex behaviors and instinctive behaviors that humans possess. 2. Which mealworm behaviors were reflexes? Why? 3. Which mealworm behaviors were instinctive? Why? 4. How did the mealworm respond to food as a stimulus? What type of behavior is displayed in the mealworm's response to food? Why is this behavior important? 5. How did the mealworm respond to cold water as a stimulus? Was the response behavioral or metabolic? 118
119 Name: Date: Period: Lab 20 Virtual Lab: Enzyme Controlled Reactions 1. Which of the following does NOT apply to an enzyme: a. Catalyst b. Inorganic c. Protein d. All of the above apply to an enzyme 2. When an enzyme catalyzes a reaction: a. Substrate(s) bind in the active site b. Products bind in the active site c. The shape of the enzyme remains unchanged d. The enzyme is consumed by the reaction 3. Which of the following would interfere most with the ability of an enzyme to catalyze a reaction? a. Reduced concentration of substrate available b. Reduced concentration of product available c. Increased concentration of substrate available d. A change in the ph 4. Feedback mechanisms regulate the rate of enzyme activity, effectively turning off an enzyme in a reversible way until more product is needed. Which of the following would be most effective as a feedback mechanism? a. Reduced concentration of product b. Increased concentration of substrate c. A change in ph d. Temporary binding of a non-substrate molecule in the active site 5. Which of the following statements is accurate in describing the activity of the lactase enzyme? a. Lactase can function equally effectively at many different ph levels b. The shape of lactase does not change during the reaction c. Lactase is converted to glucose and galactose by the reaction d. One lactase enzyme can catalyze many reactions 6. Look up and write in the following definitions as they apply to chemical reactions: a. Catabolic: b. Anabolic: c. Endergonic: 119
120 d. Exergonic: 7. Is the action of the enzyme illustrated in the video: a. Anabolic or catabolic? b. Endergonic or exergonic? 8. Is the action of lactase: a. Anabolic or catabolic? b. Endergonic or exergonic? 9. Why is enzyme activity similar to, but not exactly like, a Lock and Key? Table 1: Record your data on the number of product molecules formed per minute obtained from the virtual lab. Amount of Substrate (Lactose) 0.5 g # Product Molecules/minute at: ph 3 ph 5 ph 7 ph 9 ph g 2.0 g 4.0 g 8.0 g 10. What substrate amount was required to achieve the maximum reaction rate? 11. At what ph level did the maximum reaction rate occur? 120
121 12. Why was there no increase in the reaction rate with 8.0 g. of substrate as compared to 4.0 g. of substrate? What would you need to add to see an increase in the reaction rate with 8.0 g. of substrate? 13. In the graph you created in the lab simulation with your data: a. What is represented by the green line? b. What is the optimal ph for lactase enzyme activity? 14. Consider only the experiment you conducted with 0.5 g. of lactose. a. What is the independent variable? b. What is the dependent variable? 14. The maximum rate of this reaction is 350 molecules product/minute. List two changes you could make in the experimental conditions or variables that would increase this reaction rate. Explain why each change you listed will increase the reaction rate. 121
122 Journal Questions: 1. Describe the relationship between substrate concentration and the initial reaction rate of an enzymecatalyzed reaction. Is this a linear relationship? What happens to the initial reaction rate as substrate concentration increases? 2. What is the maximum initial reaction rate for the lactase enzyme at ph 7? 3. Explain why the maximum initial reaction rate cannot be reached at low lactose concentrations. 4. What does your data indicate about the optimum ph level for this lactase-catalyzed reaction? 5. Enzymes function most efficiently at the temperature of a typical cell, which is 37 degrees Celsius. Increases or decreases in temperature can significantly lower the reaction rate. What does this suggest about the importance of temperature-regulating mechanisms in organisms? Explain. 6. People with a lactose intolerance are able to take products such as Lactaid that contain the lactase enzyme with their meals. These products can be taken in pill form. Considering the fact that the pill form of the enzyme would have to travel through the person's stomach, what special consideration would the producer of this product need to be concerned about? 122
123 Name: Date: Period: Lab 21 Virtual Lab: The Cell Cycle and Cancer 1. In which phase of mitosis do each of the following occur: a. Centromeres split and chromosomes move toward opposite sides of the cell: b. Chromatin coils to form visible chromosomes: c. The nuclear membrane disappears: d. Sister chromatids line up in the center of the cell: 2. In which phases of mitosis are sister chromatids visible, and attached to each other at the centromere? Table 1: Record your data observed in normal tissues. Tissue Type Lung Tissue Sample 1 Lung Tissue Sample 2 Stomach Tissue Sample 1 Stomach Tissue Sample 2 Ovarian Tissue Sample 1 Ovarian Tissue Sample 2 # Cells in Interphase # Cells in Prophase # Cells in Metaphase # Cells in Anaphase # Cells in Telophase Table 2: Record your data observed in cancerous tissues. Tissue Type Lung Tissue Sample 1 Lung Tissue Sample 2 Stomach Tissue Sample 1 Stomach Tissue Sample 2 Ovarian Tissue Sample 1 Ovarian Tissue Sample 2 # Cells in Interphase # Cells in Prophase # Cells in Metaphase # Cells in Anaphase # Cells in Telophase 123
124 Table 3: Use the data in Table 1 to calculate the Mitotic Index (average % cells dividing) for each normal tissue type. Tissue Type Avg. % cells at rest Mitotic Index Lung - normal Stomach - normal Ovary - normal Table 4: Use the data in Table 2 to calculate the average % cells dividing and average % cells at rest in each cancerous tissue type. Tissue Type Avg. % cells at rest Mitotic Index Lung - cancerous Stomach - cancerous Ovary - cancerous Questions: 3. What does your data indicate about the rate of cell division in cancerous tissue compared to the rate of cell division in normal tissue? What data did you use to answer this question? 4. Which type of cancer is the fastest growing? Explain your answer, using your relevant data. 5. With what you have observed in this lab, if you were to compare tissue sample from normal breast tissue and cancerous breast tissue: a. Would you expect to see a difference in the rate of cell division in the cancerous breast tissue compared to the normal breast tissue? Explain your answer. 124
125 b. Could you make a prediction about the average % dividing cells in the cancerous breast tissue? Explain your answer. 6. Consider the % dividing cells in normal lung, normal stomach, and normal ovarian tissue. Why do you think there are more cells dividing in the stomach and ovary tissue than in the lung tissue? 7. This lab explores three common cancers. An additional form of cancer Skin Cancer used to be seen only in older individuals but is now seen in younger individuals, many in their early 20s. Skin cancer results from accumulated mutations to the DNA of skin cells, caused primarily by sun exposure. What factors do you think may be contributing to the increase in skin cancer among young adults? Journal Questions: 1. Based on your data and observations, what are some of the differences between normal cells and cancer cells? 2. When studying cell division in tissue samples, scientists often calculate a mitotic index, which is the ratio of dividing cells to the total number of cells in the sample. Which type of tissue would have a higher mitotic index, normal tissue or cancerous tissue? Explain. 125
126 Name: Date: Period: Lab 22 Virtual Lab: DNA and Genes 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and Mutation Guide. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. When you are ready, close out the Mutation Guide and click the Mutate button that appears on the new page to begin the activity. 3. You will see the following: an Original sequence of mrna that has been translated properly into its corresponding amino acid sequence a Mutated sequence that is blank a Mutation Rules block of information 4. Your task is to read the information in the Mutation Rules area and then apply the information to completing the Mutated sequence of mrna and protein. To do this, you must: read the Mutation Rule look at the Original sequence of mrna given determine the Mutated sequence of mrna bases after applying the information presented in the Mutation Rule determine the Mutated sequence of protein (amino acids) translated from the mrna sequence you just created using the Genetic Code Chart 5. Please complete this information in the area below BEFORE actually completing the virtual activity; you can then refer to it to help make the correct selections at each step. Remember to use the Genetic Code Chart to determine the protein sequence: Mutation Rule states: Original Sequence: mrna Protein Mutated Sequence: mrna Protein 126
127 6. Once you have filled in the information above, drag the correct nucleotides to their position in the Mutated sequence of mrna. Then drag the corresponding amino acids into place in the Mutated sequence of protein. When you are finished, click Check. A message will appear in the open box at the bottom of the page indicating whether your answer needs to be corrected. You may repeat this entire activity by clicking Mutate. 7. Please finish this exercise answering the Journal Questions at the end of this lab. Post-laboratory Questions: 1. A mutation: a. Results in a change in DNA sequence b. Can result in abnormal encoding of protein sequences c. Is always detrimental d. A and B e. All of the above 2. During the process of transcription: a. DNA is turned into protein b. mrna is turned into protein c. DNA is turned into mrna 3. The building blocks of proteins are: a. Amino acids b. Nucleic acids c. Polysaccharides d. Fatty acids 4. Mutations: a. Occur roughly 1 in 100 nucleotides b. Occur roughly 1 in 1,000 nucleotides c. Occur roughly 1 in 10,000 nucleotides d. Never occur e. None of the above 5. In a protein: a. A single nucleotide change can alter the encoded protein and cause disease b. 2 or more amino acids are linked together c. Mutations always alter the encoded protein structure and function d. A and B e. All of the above 6. Silent mutations: a. Are a type of point mutation b. Code for the same amino acid as intended by the original sequence c. Always affect protein structure and function d. A and B e. All of the above 127
128 7. A frameshift mutation: a. Involves the addition or deletion of one or more nucleotides b. Results in a new codon sequence c. Results in a new amino acid sequence d. All of the above 8. A stop codon is: a. AUG b. UAC c. UAG d. UGG 9. The codon CUG specifies which amino acid? a. Serine (Ser) b. Tyr (Tyrosine) c. Leu (Leucine) d. Glu (Glutamic Acid) 10. If the DNA sequence AUGGGACCUCCU was changed to AUGGGAAACCUCCU this would result in: a. A point mutation b. A silent mutation c. A frameshift mutation Journal Questions: 1. Explain why all mutations are not necessarily harmful. 2. Does changing the sequence of nucleotides always result in a different amino acid sequence? Explain. 3. Explain the differences between a point mutation and a frameshift mutation. 128
129 Name: Date: Period: Lab 23 Virtual Lab: Punnett Squares Part I: Answer the following questions: 1. Which of the following is most inclusive? a. allele b. genotype 2. Dominant alleles are represented by: a. an upper case letter b. a lower case letter c. it does not matter what type of letter is used 3. In fruit flies, gray body color is dominant over black body color. Using the letter G to represent body color, what is the genotype of a heterozygous gray bodied fly? a. GG b. gg c. Gg d. GGgg 4. All of the offspring of two gray bodied flys are also gray. What can you conclude about the genotypes of the parent flies? a. They are both heterozygous b. They are both homozygous dominant c. They are both homozygous recessive d. You cannot conclude anything definitively about the parental genotypes 5. Some of the offspring of two gray bodied flies are black. What can you conclude about the genotypes of the parent flies? a. They are both heterozygous b. They are both homozygous dominant c. They are both homozygous recessive d. You cannot conclude anything definitively about the parental genotypes Part II: Follow the instructions in the Question column to complete the virtual lab scenarios and record your data: Complete all ten scenarios and record your results in Table 1. When you record a ratio, whether it is genotypic or phenotypic ratio, always record the most dominant characteristic first, followed by the recessive. For example, when recording genotypic ratios: 1) If your offspring genotypes include 1 GG, 2 Gg, and 1 gg, the ratio would be: 1 GG : 2 Gg : 1 gg 2) If your offspring genotypes include 2 GG and 2 Gg, the ratio would be: 2 GG : 2 gg (or 1:1 in the reduced form) 3) If your offspring genotypes are 4 gg, then the ratio would be written as:: 4 gg 129
130 When you record phenotypic ratios for a monohybrid cross, there are only two possible phenotypes - either the dominant phenotype or the recessive phenotype. So you do not need to indicate the phenotype, simply put the dominant # first, followed by the recessive #: 4) If your offspring phenotypes are 3 dominant and 1 recessive, the ratio is: 3:1 5) If your offspring phenotypes are 4 dominant and 0 recessive, the ratio is: 4:0 6) If your offspring phenotypes are 0 dominant and 4 recessive, the ratio is: 0:4 Table 1: Scenario # 1 Genotype of Parent I Genotype of Parent II Genotypic Ratio of Offspring Phenotypic Ratio of Offspring Journal Questions: 1. For one of the monohybrid crosses you performed in this Investigation, describe how to use the phenotype ratios to determine the percentage of offspring displaying each trait Can the genotype for a gray-bodied fly be determined? Why or why not? Describe all of the possible genotypes for a fly with that phenotype.
131 3. Explain why an organism with a homozygous dominant genotype has the same phenotype as an organism with a heterozygous genotype. 4. What genetic infomation can be obtained from a Punnett square? What genetic infomation cannot be determined from a Punnett square? 131
132 Name: Date: Period: Lab 24 Virtual Lab: Sex-Linked Traits 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and Information areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. Next, complete the Punnett square activity by clicking on the laboratory notebook. Please be sure to note the possible genotypes of the various flies: Female, red eyes Female, red eyes Female, white eyes Male, red eyes Male, white eyes When you have completed the Punnett square activity, return to the laboratory scene to begin the actual laboratory activity. 3. In this exercise, you will perform a Drosophila mating in order to observe sex-linked trait transmission. Please click on the shelf in the laboratory. Here you will find vials of fruit flies. On the TOP shelf, please click on one of the female vials (on the left side) and then drag it to the empty vial on the shelf below. Please repeat this step using one of the male vials (on the right side). These flies will be used as the parental (P) generation. You may switch your parent choices at any time by dragging out old selections and dragging in new flies. Use the Punnett square below to predict the genotypes/phenotypes of the offspring (Note: refer to the genotype table you created above if needed): Genotype: Genotype: Phenotype: Phenotype: Genotype: Genotype: Phenotype: Phenotype: % Female, red eye % Female, white eye % Male, red eye % Male, white eye When you are finished, click Mate and Sort. 4. You will now see information appear in the vials sitting on the next shelf below. These are the offspring of the parent flies you selected above, and they represent the first filial (F1) generation. In Table I, please input the numbers of each sex and phenotype combination for the F1 generation. These numbers will be placed into the first row marked P generation Cross. 132
133 5. You will next need to select one of the F1 female flies and one of the F1 male flies to create the second filial (F2) generation. Drag your selections down to the empty vial on the next shelf below and fill in the Punnett square below to predict the offspring: Genotype: Genotype: Phenotype: Phenotype: Genotype: Genotype: Phenotype: Phenotype: % Female, red eye % Female, white eye % Male, red eye % Male, white eye After clicking Mate and Sort, you will now have information on their offspring (the F2 generation) to input into your Data Table or Worksheet below. This information will be placed into the second row marked F1 generation Cross. NOTE: there are additional lines remaining to use if your instructor requires the analysis of additional crosses. 6. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. Table I: Cross Type P Generation Cross F1 Generation Cross P Generation Cross F1 Generation Cross Phenotype of Male Parent Phenotype of Female Parent Number of Red eye, Male Offspring Number of White eye, Male Offspring Number of Red eye, Female Offspring Number of White eye, Female Offspring Post-laboratory Questions: 133
134 1. Through fruit fly studies, geneticists have discovered a segment of DNA called the homeobox which appears to control: a. Sex development in the flies b. Life span in the flies c. Final body plan development in the flies 2. The genotype of a red-eyed male fruit fly would be: a. X R X R b. X R X r c. X r X r d. A or B e. None of the above 3. Sex-linked traits: a. Can be carried on the Y chromosome b. Affect males and females equally c. Can be carried on chromosome 20 d. A and B e. None of the above 4. A monohybrid cross analyzes: a. One trait, such as eye color b. Two traits, such as eye color and wing shape c. The offspring of one parent 5. A female with the genotype X R X r : a. Is homozygous for the eye color gene b. Is heterozygous for the eye color gene c. Is considered a carrier for the eye color gene d. A and B e. B and C 6. In T.H. Morgan s experiments: a. He concluded that the gene for fruit fly eye color is carried on the X chromosome b. He found that his F1 generation results always mirrored those predicted by Mendelian Laws of Inheritance c. He found that his F2 generation results always mirrored those predicted by Mendelian Laws of Inheritance d. A and B e. All of the above 7. In this laboratory exercise: a. The Punnett square will allow you to predict the traits of the offspring created in your crosses b. X R will represent the recessive allele for eye color, which is white c. X r will represent the dominant allele for eye color, which is red d. All of the above 8. In a cross between a homozygous red-eyed female fruit fly and a white-eyed male, what percentage of the female offspring is expected to be carriers? 134
135 a. 0% b. 25% c. 50% d. 75% e. 100% 9. In a cross between a white-eyed female and a red-eyed male: a. All males will have red eyes b. 50% of males will have white eyes c. All females will have red eyes d. 50% of females will have white eyes 10. In human diseases that are X-linked dominant, one dominant allele causes the disease. If an affected father has a child with an unaffected mother: a. All males are unaffected b. Some but not all males are affected c. All females are unaffected d. Some but not all females are affected Journal Questions: 1. In a mating between a red-eyed male fruit fly and a red-eyed heterozygous female, what percentage of the female offspring is expected to be carriers? How did you determine the percentage? 2. In a mating between a red-eyed male fruit fly and a white-eyed female fruit fly, what percentage of the male offspring will have white eyes? Describe how you determined the percentage. 3. Hemophilia, a blood disorder in humans, results from a sex-linked recessive allele. Suppose that a daughter of a mother without the allele and a father with the allele marries a man with hemophilia. What is the probability that the daughter's children will develop the disease? Describe how you determined the probability. 4. Colorblindness results from a sex-linked recessive allele. Determine the genotypes of the offspring that result from a cross between a color-blind male and a homozygous female who has normal vision. Describe how you determined the genotypes of the offspring. 135
136 5. Explain why sex-linked traits appear more often in males than in females. 6. In humans, hemophilia is a sex-linked recessive trait. It is located on the X chromosome. Remember that the human female genotype is XX and the male genotype is XY. Suppose that a daughter of a mother without the allele and a father with the allele marries a man with hemophilia. What is the probability that the daughter's children will develop the disease? Describe how you determined the probability. 7. Colorblindness also results from a sex-linked recessive allele on the X chromosome in humans. Determine the genotypes of the offspring that result from a cross between a color-blind male and a homozygous female who has normal vision. Describe how you determined the genotypes of the offspring. 8. Based on the traits explained in questions 6 and 7, explain why sex-linked traits in humans appear more often in males than in females. 136
137 Name: Date: Period: Lab 25 Virtual Lab: Knocking Out Genes 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and Arabidopsis Lab Manual areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. In this exercise, you will perform a set of experiments using knockout strains of the plant Arabidopsis to determine gene function. To begin, drag the seed packets to their correct growth chamber. Using the pulldown tab, select from one of 4 growth conditions in the Environment area. When you are through, click on Grow to germinate the seeds. 3. Click the magnifying glass icon for a closer look at the plant growth in each condition, remembering to use the arrow to observe all 3 plants from each seed type. Note your observations in Table I AND within the Data Table located at the bottom of the page. When you are through, close out the window using the X. 4. Click the Clean Pots button to reset the growing pots. Then repeat the steps above to test each of the 3 remaining environmental growth conditions. 5. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. Table I: Plant Wild-type Optimum Growth Conditions UV Exposure High Salinity in Soil Drought Conditions Mutant 1 137
138 Post-laboratory Questions: 1. In Arabidopsis, the leaves at the base of the plant are which type? a. Rosette b. Cauline c. Trichrome d. Silique 2. Arabidopsis: a. Has a small genome that has been completely sequenced b. Displays roughly 200 visible phenotypic markers c. Is self-pollinating d. All of the above 3. A gene: a. Is made up of DNA b. Encodes a protein c. Can be knocked out in order to determine protein function d. All of the above 4. The knockout mutants of Arabidopsis used in this exercise each: a. Have one gene and one protein missing b. Have one gene added and one protein missing c. Have one gene missing and one protein added d. Have gene and one protein added 5. In order to identify the protein encoded for by a specific gene, one must: a. Have a knocked out gene b. Have the DNA sequence of the knocked out gene c. Have the chromosomal location of the knocked out gene d. Have observations comparing its growth to a wild-type organism e. All of the above 6. UV radiation may retard plant growth by: a. Restricting water coming into the plant b. Restricting nutrients coming into the plant c. Damaging DNA d. All of the above 7. When making your experimental observations in this exercise, you are observing which structures? a. Rosette leaves b. Cauline leaves c. Trichromes d. Siliques 138
139 8. High salinity and drought conditions may both cause Arabidopsis plants to become: a. Dehydrated b. Mutated c. Malnourished due to lack of nutrients d. A and C e. All of the above 9. In your experiments, you expect to see normal growth in both the wild-type and mutant plants under which condition? a. UV Exposure b. High Salinity in Soil c. Optimum Growth Conditions d. Drought Conditions 10. In your experiments, you can determine the role of the knockout gene by seeing which condition produces wild-type and mutant plants: a. With the same phenotype b. With different phenotypes Journal Questions: 1. Did any of the mutant plants show a variance in phenotypes from the wild-type plants under one of the experimental conditions? Explain your answer. 2. According to your observations of one of the mutant plants, what function is controlled by the knocked out gene? Explain your answer. 3. Why can the Arabidopsis plant serve as a model for all flowering plants? Explain your answer. 139
140 4. Is it possible to have a knockout mutant plant that shows no visible phenotype that is different from the wild-type plant? Explain your answer. 5. Why do you think the mouse was selected as a model organism for mammals? Explain your answer. 140
141 Name: Date: Period: Lab 26 Virtual Lab: Gene Splicing 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and Diagrams areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. In this exercise, you will perform a simulated experiment involving the creation of a transgenic organism using genetic engineering technology. To begin, select a Genetic Trait that you would like to use in this experiment by clicking the corresponding toggle button. You can click on the underlined text to read current information on this genetic trait. Next, please select a Host Organism into which the genetic trait will be introduced. Input this information into Table I. Click Continue to move on with the activity. 3. On the next page, you will begin the procedure for generating a transgenic organism. Please note the following text/diagram boxes: diagram box showing the DNA sequence of the gene encoding the selected Genetic Trait (input this information into Table I) a dialogue box explaining what is shown in the diagram box a dialogue box explaining types of restriction enzymes a box to input the restriction enzyme chosen to perform the action at this step Once you have completed this step, click Continue. A new dialogue box will appear if your enzyme choice is incorrect. Make a new selection after rereading the information and click Continue to advance to the next step. Input this information into Table I when you are through. 4. In the next step, you need to place the isolated DNA fragment into a bacterial plasmid. To do this, look at the DNA sequence given (this is what you just cut out in the previous step) and choose the same enzyme in two separate selections that will create these base overhangs in the plasmid (hint: should it be the same enzyme used in the previous step?). Click Continue when you are done; a dialogue box will appear if you chose the incorrect enzyme. Reread the information and make a new selection to advance to the next step. Input this information into Table I when you are through. 5. In the last page, you will learn if the transgenic organism you created was viable or not. Input this information into Table I when you are through. You can redo the experiment with a different combination of Genetic Traits and Host Organisms if you wish by clicking the button at the bottom of this page. 6. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. 141
142 Table I: Genetic Trait Host Organism DNA sequence of Genetic Trait (gene) Restriction Enzyme used Viable Transgenic Organism Made (Y/N) Post-laboratory Questions: 1. The glow-in-the-dark trait gene: a. Comes from a firefly b. Comes from E. coli c. Could be used in anti-hiv drug development d. A and C Antifreeze plasma proteins: a. Have been isolated in species of flounder b. Allow some species of fish to grow at very hot temperatures c. Allow some species of fish to grow at very cold temperatures d. A and C e. All of the above 3. Insulin: a. Can be produced in genetically engineered bacteria b. Can be produced in cloned cows c. Can be produced more cheaply in cow s milk d. B and C e. All of the above 4. The rot-resistant trait: a. Was introduced into the Flavr Savr tomato b. Is due to antisense suppression of polygalacturonase c. Increased the cost of processed tomato products such as tomato paste d. A and B
143 5. Genes have NOT been successfully introduced ( spliced ) into: a. Prokaryotes b. Plants c. Animals d. None of the above 6. Restriction enzymes: a. Were originally isolated from bacteria b. Only cut DNA at random sequences c. Can cut DNA at specific sequences d. Always leave blunt ends e. A and C 7. A proper Watson-Crick DNA base pair is: a. A-G b. C-T c. A-T d. None of the above 8. Sticky ends allow DNA fragments to be spliced into vectors by what type of bonding? a. Ionic b. Covalent c. Hydrogen d. None of the above 9. The enzyme ligase: a. Cuts DNA and creates blunt ends b. Cuts DNA and creates sticky ends c. Completes the splicing of DNA fragments and plasmid vectors d. None of the above 10. You cut a vector with the following DNA base overhang ( sticky end ): ACCTGGACTTA CCTGAAT You will need to cut out the DNA fragment containing your gene of interest so that which sticky end is created? a. XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXTGGA b. XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXACCT c. XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXTCCA d. XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXATTC 143
144 Journal Questions: 1. What does the term sticky ends refer to in gene splicing? 2. What is a plasmid? How is a plasmid used in gene splicing? 3. What types of vectors are used to carry DNA from one species into the DNA of another species? Give examples. 4. What is a transgenic organism? Give examples. 5. Why is it essential that the same restriction enzyme be used to cleave (cut) the DNA of both organisms used to create a transgenic organism? 144
145 Name: Date: Period: Lab 27 Virtual Lab: Tracking Grizzlies 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and DNA Lab Handbook areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. In this exercise, you will learn how to estimate the population size of a given organism using DNA technology. To begin, read the information in the DNA Lab Handbook in order to gain an understanding of how scientists estimate population sizes as well as the basics of bear hair DNA fingerprinting technology. 3. You are now ready to begin the activity. Start by clicking on Trapping Trip 1 ; this will reveal hair collection sites on the map. Click and drag each hair sample from the map into a separate test tube in the rack below in the laboratory area. When you are through, click and drag the pipette to the first test tube in the rack on the far left side. Then click and drag the pipette containing an aliquot of this sample to the electrophoretic gel. Click to release the sample into the far left well of the gel. Repeat these steps to load the remaining samples into the wells of the gel. When you are finished, click the Add Dye button in order to add migration dye to each sample and then click the On/Off button to run the samples on the gel. 4. When the samples have completely separated on the gel, you can then click and drag each sample lane to the appropriate viewing box on the left of the laboratory page. At this point, you will need to input the total number of samples obtained in Table I. 5. When you are finished, click the Trapping Trip 2 button and follow the same procedure stated above to analyze the new hair samples. Remember that when comparing electrophoretic gel patterns, if the DNA banding patterns of two fingerprints align perfectly they most likely are from the same animal. After inputting your data into Table I, repeat these steps again for Trapping Trip 3 and Trapping Trip Using your collected data and the equations presented in the Question area, you then need to complete Table I to estimate the population size of the grizzly bears living within the area that has been observed. 7. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. 145
146 Table I: Trip Number 1 (Initial) Hair Samples (S) Total Number of Identified Bears (T) Repeat (ST) Estimated Total Number of Bears (N) Post-laboratory Questions: 1. The grizzly bear hair adhered to the traps by sticking to: a. Glue b. Velcro c. Two-sided tape d. Metal barbs 2. Which of the following is a proper base pair in DNA? a. A-G b. C-A c. G-G d. T-G e. None of the above 3. DNA fingerprinting can be used on: a. Plants b. Bacteria c. Igneous Rocks d. A and B e. All of the above 4. Which of the following represents the correct order of steps in DNA fingerprinting? a. DNA isolation restriction enzyme digestion gel electrophoresis b. Restriction enzyme digestion gel electrophoresis DNA isolation c. DNA isolation gel electrophoresis restriction enzyme digestion d. None of the above 5. During gel electrophoresis, a positive charge is applied to: a. The top of the gel b. The bottom of the gel c. It does not matter 146
147 6. In an electrophoretic gel: a. DNA bands near the top of the gel are the smallest DNA fragments b. DNA bands near the top of the gel are the largest DNA fragments c. You cannot tell the size of a DNA fragment based upon looking at the DNA bands 7. Grizzly bear populations in North America: a. Have greatly risen in past years b. Have been affected by habitat destruction c. Have been affected by hunting practices d. B and C e. All of the above 8. Until recently, grizzly bear populations were estimated by using: a. Analysis of scat b. Analysis of skeletal remains c. Analysis of tracks d. None of the above 9. The DNA fingerprints obtained from the grizzly bears: a. Identify weight of the bears b. Identify sex of the bears c. Identify age of the bears d. B and C e. All of the above 10. In this simplified DNA fingerprint diagram, which cub(s) could be excluded from being the offspring of the adult female presented? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. B and C e. None of the above 147
148 Journal Questions: 1. DNA fingerprinting identifies individual bears and also allows for determining the gender of a bear. What information does it not provide that might be useful for deciding on conservation efforts? 2. Bear hair may also be collected from trees that the bears rub themselves against. In a study using DNA fingerprinting of hair collected from rub trees, it was found that the population in the area contained more male bears than female bears. Give one potential explanation for this situation. 3. What other problems might DNA fingerprinting of bear hair solve? 4. The police arrested three suspects and obtained DNA fingerprints from each individual. What does the investigator need to establish in order to determine which of the three might be the culprit in the crime? Explain your answer. 5. How could DNA fingerprinting technology be used to establish that a highway cutting through grizzly bear habitat stops the bears from moving from one side to the other? Explain your answer. 6. Monarch butterfly populations are found east and west of the Rocky Mountains. How could DNA fingerprinting technology be used to establish that they constitute one breeding population or two separate breeding populations? Explain you answer. 148
149 Name: Date: Period: Lab 28 Virtual Lab: Dinosaur Dig 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions, Geologic Time Scale and Dinosaur Guide areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. In this exercise, you will use observations and simulated chemical analysis of dinosaur fossils to determine their age and species identification. To begin, observe the fossil presented in the Unknown Fossil area at the bottom left-hand side of the page. In Table I, please note the fossil s shape, size and structure. 3. Next, drag the rock sample found in the rock layer below the fossil site into the mass spectrometer. Click the Start button and interpret the data that is presented on the computer monitor. Place this information in Table I below. Remember to use the information in the Questions area for reference. Here is an example as well: Absolute Dating Results Isotope A: Half-life 220 Million Years Parent Isotope Remaining: 50% Daughter Isotope Remaining: 50% In this case, ½ of the parent atoms have decayed so this represents 1 half-life. Thus, the age of the rock is roughly 220 million years old. 4. Repeat step number 3 for the rock sample found in the rock layer above the fossil site. 5. Next, open the Geologic Time Scale and use the absolute dating results to determine the period in which this dinosaur existed. Input this information into Table I. 6. To complete your analysis of the fossil, compare the data you have obtained with the reference information listed in the Dinosaur Guide to determine the species identification of the fossil. Place this information in Table I. Note: There are extra rows in your table to identify additional fossils if necessary. Click the reset button to call up a new fossil specimen to identify. 7. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. 149
150 Table I: Fossil Information Absolute Dating of Rock Layer Below Absolute Dating of Rock Layer Above Geologic Time Period Dinosaur Species Post-laboratory Questions: 1. Based upon evidence, it appears that a mass extinction of reptile species occurred during which era? a. Precambrian b. Paleozoic c. Cenozoic d. All of the above 2. One of the earliest known dinosaurs was: a. Stegosaurus b. Tyrannosaurus rex c. Coelophysis d. Diplodocus 3. The fossil of which species brought forth the idea of modern day birds potentially being descended from dinosaurs? a. Stegosaurus b. Diplodocus c. Tyrannosaurus rex d. Archaeopteryx 4. The fossils of Archaeopteryx appear so well-preserved due to the fact that they were found in what was once: a. a dry desert b. cold arctic ice c. a lagoon d. a low oxygen environment e. c and d 150
151 5. Based on fossil evidence, peg-like blunt teeth in the front of the jaw appeared best suited for which type of lifestyle? a. Scavenger b. Carnivore c. Predator d. Herbivore 6. Based on fossil evidence, which species appeared to have hollow bones? a. Diplodocus b. Coelophysis c. Archaeopteryx d. Tyrannosaurus rex e. C and D f. None of the above 7. Dinosaurs: a. Appear to have evolved from archosaurs b. Were predominant in the Paleozoic era c. Became extinct in the Cenozoic era d. All of the above 8. Mammals: a. Coexisted for a time with dinosaurs b. Became predominant in the Tertiary period c. Were first seen in the Cambrian period d. A and B e. None of the above 9. Archaeologists tend to find fossils most often embedded in which type of rock? a. Sedimentary b. Igneous c. Metamorphic 10. Absolute dating is best performed on rocks formed: a. in a cold region b. near a hydrothermal vent below the ocean s surface c. near a volcano d. B and C e. all of the above Journal Questions: 1. Describe the steps you took to estimate the age of one of the fossils. 151
152 2. Describe the steps you took to identify one of the dinosaurs from the fossil. 3. How could you determine that two species of dinosaurs lived in the same time period? 4. What evidence supports the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs? 5. Describe some features that dinosaurs share with modern living reptiles. 6. How could a paleontologist determine that a dinosaur was a plant eater or a carnivore? 7. What other evidence besides fossil bones might be useful in describing the behavior of a dinosaur? 152
153 Name: Date: Period: Lab 29 Virtual Lab: Classifying Using Biotechnology NOTE: As you read the information in the Microbiology Handbook, there may be some terms you are not familiar with such as 16s ribosomal RNA and Polymerase Chain Reaction. Refer to your text to read background material explaining any terms or processes with which you are not familiar. Record the results of your investigations of each unknown in Table 1 by completing the following steps: 1) Apply the stain to your first unknown slide and examine it under the microscope. 2) Record the shape of the bacteria, the arrangement of the bacteria, and the gram staining characteristics. 3) Analyze and record the G+C content of the sample by dragging the DNA tube that corresponds to the bacterial sample to the GC Content Measuring Apparatus. (Note: the identification of the DNA tubes may be confusing; the red tube belongs to sample #1, the blue tube belongs to sample #2, and the green tube belongs to sample #3) 4) Compare the slide to the pictures in the Microbiology Handbook, and record the name of the species you believe it to be. 5) Repeat these steps for sample #2 and sample #3. 6) Click reset to obtain 3 new bacterial samples to test, and repeat steps ) Continue to reset the slides and continue testing until you have identified each bacterial species described in the Microbiology handbook, as well as one unknown species. Table 1: Shape Arrangement Gram + or Gram - GC Content Species 153
154 Answer the following questions: 1. Which of the species you identified will have DNA with the lowest melting temperature? 2. You test a new unknown bacterial sample and find it gram + and has a G+C content of 55%. Which of the following statements is accurate regarding this sample: a. It is a different species than any of the other species you have identified b. it is most closely related to Staphylococcus aureus c. the bacterial cells will probably be rod-shaped d. the bacterial cells are prokaryotic e. c and d f. a and d 3. You test another new unknown bacterial sample, and find the G+C content is identical to one of the samples you have already identified, but the rrna gene sequence contains one base that is different. What can you conclude: a. the two samples are from unrelated species b. the two samples are from closely related, but not identical, species c. the two samples are probably from the same species d. there is not enough data to form a conclusion 5. According to your data, which two species that you identified diverged the longest time ago? 6. Your lab partner hands you a slide with a new sample of a bacterium called Staphylococcus mutans. What can you deduce about this bacterium? a. it is closely related to streptococcus mutans b. it is closely related to staphylococcus aureus c. it is closely related to both streptococcus mutans and staphylococcus aureus d. it is closely related to either streptococcus mutan or staphylococcus aureus e. there is not enough information to establish an evolutionary relationship 7. List one of your identified bacterium that has a thick cell wall: 8. You view an unknown bacterial sample that has a spherical shape, requires oxygen for metabolism, and stains purple with gram staining. Which of the following correctly describes the species you are viewing? a. gram positive, spirilli, aerobic b. gram negative, bacilli, facultatively anaerobic c. gram negative, cocci, anaerobic d. gram positive, cocci, aerobic 9. 30s and 16s ribosomal RNA molecules are components of: a. transfer RNA b. the nucleolus c. a ribosome d. RNA polymerase 154
155 10. G+C nucleotide base pairs are held together by three hydrogen bonds, while A+T base pairs are held together by two hydrogen bonds. Which of the following characteristics are found in a molecule with a high GC content as compared to a molecule with a higher AT content? a. increased UV absorption b. increased melting temperature c. higher rate of mutation d. a and b e. b and c Journal Questions: 1. Describe the characteristics of the organism and the process you used to determine the identity of one of the organisms in this lab. 2. Is it possible that two prokaryotic organisms show phenotypic similarities, but do not share close evolutionary relatedness? Explain your answer. 3. Various Streptococci and Lactobacilli were traditionally grouped together as lactic acid bacteria because of their characteristic fermentation. Most of them were found to have a DNA guanine plus cystosine (G + C) content of approximately 40%, but one of them had a G + C content of 58%. Should this organism remain in the same genus as the rest of the bacterial species? Explain your answer. 4. What is the definition of the concept of a species in Bacteria based on? Explain your answer, taking into consideration that these organisms do not reproduce sexually. 155
156 Name: Date: Period: Lab 30 Virtual Lab: Blood Pressure 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and Information areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. In this exercise, you will learn a common method for determining blood pressure and investigate factors that may contribute to high blood pressure (hypertension). To begin, click on the gender pull down menu and select Male or Female ; then select an age group from the Age Range button. Once you have this information selected, click Measure Blood Pressure to obtain the blood pressure readings from all 10 subjects (patients). 3. Please place the blood pressure for each patient s individual reading in Table I only. Then, using the Calculator tool on the bottom of the laboratory page or your own calculator, please determine the AVERAGE systolic and diastolic pressure readings for your subjects. To do this, add up all of the systolic readings you obtained from your group and divide by 10; round your answer up to the nearest WHOLE number. Repeat this process using the diastolic readings. Place these values in the correct areas of Table I and in the Data Table at the bottom of the laboratory page as well. 4. By clicking on each patient in the group, you may also read their medical history chart. Please make important notes on this information, especially on individuals whose blood pressure is higher than the group average (written in RED text), in Table I and Table II. 5. When you are through, click reset, select a new group of individuals to test and follow the instructions above. There will be 8 subject groups to be tested in all. 6. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. 156
157 Table I: Male Female Male Female Patient 1 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 2 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 3 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 4 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 5 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 6 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 7 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 8 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 9 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 10 S= D= I= S= D= I= S= D= I= S= D= I= Avg. Systolic Avg. Diastolic S= systolic pressure reading D= diastolic pressure reading I= health information 157
158 Table II: Male Female Male Female Patient 1 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 2 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 3 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 4 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 5 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 6 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 7 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 8 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 9 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D= I= I= I= I= Patient 10 S= D= I= S= D= I= S= D= I= S= D= I= Avg. Systolic Avg. Diastolic S= systolic pressure reading D= diastolic pressure reading I= health information 158
159 Post-laboratory Questions: 1. Hypertension means: a. High blood sugar levels b. High blood cholesterol levels c. High blood pressure levels d. None of the above 2. A sphygmomanometer: a. Measures blood pressure b. When inflated cuts off blood flow to the brachial vein c. Must be used in conjunction with a stethoscope d. A and C e. All of the above 3. In measuring blood pressure: a. Diastolic pressure is measured as blood first reenters the artery b. Systolic pressure is measured when blood flow just returns to normal in the artery c. Blood pressure readings are noted as systolic over diastolic pressure d. All of the above 4. Based on the laboratory activity, evidence shows that as a group: a. Males experience an increased systolic and diastolic pressure with age b. Males experience a decreased systolic and diastolic pressure with age c. Males experience an increased systolic and decreased diastolic pressure with age d. Males experience a decreased systolic and increased diastolic pressure with age e. Males have relatively constant blood pressure with age 5. Based on the laboratory activity, evidence shows that as a group: a. Females experience a decreased systolic and diastolic pressure with age b. Females experience an increased systolic and diastolic pressure with age c. Females experience an increased systolic and decreased diastolic pressure with age d. Females experience a decreased systolic and increased diastolic pressure with age e. Females have relatively constant blood pressure with age 6. On average for both sexes, normal blood pressure is typically defined as: a. 140/60 b. 130/95 c. 120/80 d. 145/80 7. Based on the results of this exercise, which of the following blood pressure readings are significantly above normal, indicating hypertension? a. 122/78 b. 130/84 c. 129/81 d. None of the above 159
160 Which of the following information from the medical charts appears to play the least role in determining blood pressure? a. Sex b. Height c. Weight d. Age e. None of the above 9. Which of the following appear to be lifestyle related risk factors for hypertension? a. Smoking b. Lack of exercise c. Family history d. A and B e. All of the above 10. A patient comes in to have their blood pressure taken. They are a non-smoker, they exercise daily and consume a healthy diet low in sodium. Based upon this information: a. Their blood pressure will be normal b. Their blood pressure will indicate hypertension c. You cannot estimate their reading due to the effect of genetics on blood pressure Journal Questions: 1. What factors are known to cause increases in blood pressure? 2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members. 3. What sorts of problems might a person develop who has chronic hypertension? 4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
161 5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages? 6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading? 7. List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension? 8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure? 161
162 Name: Date: Period: Lab 31 Virtual Lab: Plant Transpiration 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and Information areas. 2. In this exercise, you will test the effects of various environmental conditions on the rate of plant transpiration. To begin, click on one of the plant specimens and drag it to the potometer; the name of the plant will then appear. Clicking on the clock icon will begin the experiment, and after the simulated hour has passed you will be shown the temperature at which the experiment took place and the volume of fluid transpired by the plant (in ml). Place all of this information in the Table and/or in Table I below. 3. Now that you have assessed the transpiration rate of this plant under normal conditions, click and drag one of the three appliances to the laboratory bench next to the potometer. Click the clock and begin the second experiment. After collecting your data as above, repeat these procedures on your plant specimen using the remaining two appliances. 4. When you are completely finished testing your specimen under all four conditions, click on a new plant specimen and drag it to the potometer. Following all of the procedures above, collect your data on the transpiration rates of this plant and place them in Table I. When you have completely analyzed all four visible plant specimens, you can click the Reset button to obtain new plant specimens. There are 9 total plants in all that need to be tested under all four environmental conditions. 5. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. 162
163 Table I: Total Amount of Water (in ml) Transpired in One Hour Plant Type Normal Conditions (21 o C) With Heater (27 o C) With Fan (21 o C) Arrowhead With Lamp (21 o C) Coleus Devil s Ivy Dieffenbachia English Ivy Geranium Rubber Plant Weeping Plant Zebra Plant Post-laboratory Questions: 1. Transpiration in plants is driven by: a. Gravity b. Capillary action c. Static electricity d. All of the above 2. Stomata: a. Are found on plant roots b. permit the intake of carbon dioxide c. permit the intake of oxygen d. All of the above 3. Water can be lost by a plant through which process(es)? a. Evaporation b. Transpiration c. Condensation d. A and B 163
164 4. Which environmental condition in your experiments served as the control? a. heat b. wind c. light d. None of the above 5. In your experiments, transpiration was observed by: a. Directly measuring the amount of water leaving the leaves through transpiration b. Directly measuring the amount of water leaving the leaves through evaporation c. Directly measuring the amount of water absorbed through the plant sprig s stem d. All of the above 6. Which environmental condition(s) always led to an increase in transpiration rate in each plant tested? a. Heat b. Wind c. Light d. A and B e. All of the above 7. Wind did not have the greatest effect on transpiration rate in which plant type? a. Arrowhead b. Geranium c. Rubber Plant d. Weeping Plant e. None of the Above 8. Colder temperatures cause stomata to remain closed. Based on this information, if a plant were grown below 21 o C would you expect transpiration rates to: a. Increase b. Decrease c. Remain the same 9. Wind appeared to increase the rate of transpiration in most plants tested. This is most likely due to the fact that: a. Humidity was increased b. Evaporation was increased c. Stomata were forced to close d. All of the above 10. Cacti grow in arid regions such as deserts. Compared to other plants, transpiration in cacti would most likely be: a. Lower b. Higher c. The same 164
165 Journal Questions: 1. Describe the process of transpiration in vascular plants. 2. Describe any experimental controls used in the Investigation. 3. What environmental factors that you tested increased the rate of transpiration? Was the rate of transpiration increased for all plants tested? 4. Did any of the environmental factors (heat, light, or wind) increase the transpiration rate more than the others? Why? 5. Which species of plants that you tested had the highest transpiration rates? Why do you think different species of plants transpire at different rates? 6. Suppose you coated the leaves of a plant with petroleum jelly. How would the plant's rate of transpiration be affected? 7. Of what value to a plant is the ability to lose water through transpiration? 165
166 Name: Date: Period: Lab 32 Virtual Lab: Population Biology 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and Information areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. In this exercise, you will examine the characteristics of population growth and the effects of competition using two model organisms. To begin, read the text that appears in the Information window that initially opens in order to learn about the aquatic protist Paramecium, growth of populations and the facets of competition. You can close this window by clicking the X ; remember you can reopen the file by clicking the Information button at the bottom of the laboratory page. 3. You are now ready to begin the activity. Start by clicking on the purple pipette bulb on the far left. Once filled, click and drag the pipette to the test tube on the far left of the test tube rack in order to fill it with the first protist culture. Then click on the bulb on the right and repeat the steps to fill the second test tube with the next culture. To fill the last test tube, click and drag a sample of EACH protist culture to the test tube on the far right of the test tube rack. 4. You will next need to click on the microscope icon in the laboratory area. This will open up your workspace for observing the cultures. To make your wetmount preparations, click the box of clean slides and then the rack of cultures. You can then click each individual slide and drag it to the microscope in order to count the organisms in each culture. Remember to click the Grid On icon on the microscope to aid you in your counting. When you are through counting the cultures, place your data in the Data Table and Table I. Remember to multiply your counts by 2 to indicate the number of organisms present in 1mL of culture. When you are finished, click Clear Slides and then click the calendar to advance 2 days of growth. NOTE: there is a Diagram button here to show you detailed structures of Paramecium sp. 5. You are now ready to repeat the actions in step 4. Continue to do so until you have counted your cultures for 16 days and the Data Table and Table I are complete. When you are finished with the Data Table, click the Graph button to obtain a graph of your data over the 16 days. 6. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. 166
167 Table I: 0 Day P. caudatum alone, cells/ml P. aurelia alone, cells/ml P. caudatum mixed, cells/ml P. aurelia mixed, cells/ml Post-laboratory Questions: 1. Paramecia possess: a. A nucleus b. Flagella c. A contractile vacuole d. A and C e. All of the above 2. The organisms used in this experiment belong to which domain of life? a. Bacteria b. Archaea c. Eukarya 3. What served as the food for the paramecia in this experiment? a. Rice b. Oats c. Bacteria d. Nothing, they are photosynthetic 4. Which of the following can influence the carrying capacity of a population? a. Availability of food b. Availability of water c. Competition d. Build up of toxins e. All of the above 167
168 5. Which type of competition would be observed between organisms within the P. caudatum culture? a. Interspecific b. Intraspecific c. There would be no competition, they are of the same species 6. Which culture reached its carrying capacity the fastest in this experiment? a. P. caudatum, alone b. P. aurelia, alone c. P. aurelia, mixed 7. You have counted 30 organisms in your culture on Day 4. The concentration of organisms in this culture is: a. 15 cells/ml b. 30 cells/ml c. 60 cells/ml d. 90 cells/ml 8. Based upon your data, which culture experienced the greatest rate of exponential growth? a. P. caudatum, alone b. P. aurelia, alone c. P. caudatum, mixed d. P. aurelia, alone 9. Based upon the data, which organism appeared more efficient at using its resources? a. P. caudatum b. P. aurelia 10. In a repeat of this experiment, you found that on Days the number of individuals in the P. caudatum, mixed culture began to gradually rise. A possible explanation for this is: a. There was insufficient food in the culture b. The temperature warmed enough to allow for more growth c. A genetic variant of the original population began to experience growth due to its use of a different food (bacterium) source d. None of the above could lead to this scenario Journal Questions: 1. Make a hypothesis about how you think the two species of Paramecium will grow alone and how they will grow when they are grown together. 168
169 2. Explain how you tested your hypothesis. 3. On what day did the Paramecium caudatum population reach the carrying capacity of the environment when it was grown alone? How do you know? 4. On what day did the Paramecium aurelia population reach the carrying capacity of the environment? How do you know? 5. Explain the differences in the population growth patterns of the two Paramecium species. What does this tell you about how Paramecium aurelia uses available resources? 6. Describe what happened when the Paramecium populations were mixed in the same test tube. Do the results support the principle of competitive exclusion? 7. Explain how this experiment demonstrates that no two species can occupy the same niche. 169
170 Name: Date: Period: Lab 33 Virtual Lab: Model Ecosystems 1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and Field Guide areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further explanation. 2. In this exercise, you will examine several model ecosystems and their characteristic plant and animal species. To begin, read the information in the Field Guide to learn more about the organization of five selected ecosystems. 3. You are now ready to begin the activity. Start by selecting the ecosystem type that you would like to model from the pull down menu in the laboratory area. Then click and drag the various organisms to their correct locations within the different trophic levels of the pyramid. Once you have moved all of the organisms click the Check button and fix any incorrect choices if necessary. Clicking on the Pyramid of Energy will reveal how much energy is available at each trophic level. Clicking on the Pyramid of Numbers will show the number of organisms at each trophic level within this type of ecosystem. Fill in all of the information from this pyramid on Table I below. 4. You must take one last step in the investigation of this ecosystem. It is important to determine the amount of energy that is transferred from one trophic level to the next. This is called the energy conversion efficiency (E.C.E.), and this ratio is determined by taking the energy value from a higher trophic level and dividing it by the energy value of the level below it. Please do these calculations as directed and input the data in your Data Table and Table I. 5. When you are completely finished analyzing the ecosystem, you can then click the Reset button and select another type of ecosystem from the pull down menu. Follow the directions above to investigate this ecosystem and the three that remain. 6. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab. 170
171 171 Table I: Ecosystem Type Producers First Order Heterotrophs Second Order Heterotrophs Third Order Heterotrophs Deciduous Forest Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Hot Desert Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Grassland Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*:
172 Antarctic Ocean Shore Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Freshwater Lake Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: Energy: Numbers: E.C.E.*: *E.C.E.= energy conversion efficiency ratio Post-laboratory Questions: 1. The ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems is: a. Carbon b. Oxygen c. Sunlight d. Water 2. Organisms that directly use energy from the sun to make their own food are called: a. Autotrophs b. Hetertrophs c. Carnivores d. Decomposers 172
173 3. Which of the following illustrates the correct ordering of trophic levels? a. Decomposers carnivores autotrophs herbivores b. Herbivores autotrophs carnivores decomposers c. Autotrophs herbivores carnivores decomposers d. None of the above 4. Within an ecosystem: a. Energy flows in one direction only and nutrients are recycled b. Energy is recycled and nutrients flow in one direction only c. Energy and nutrients flow in one direction only d. Energy and nutrients are both recycled 5. The efficiency of energy transfer from a lower trophic level to the next highest level is roughly: a. 1% b. 5% c. 10% d. 50% e. 80% 6. In aquatic ecosystems, biomass is least at which trophic level? a. Autotrophs b. Herbivores c. Carnivores 7. You are in an area where there are squid, seals and penguins. You are most likely in which ecosystem? a. Deciduous forest b. Hot Desert c. Antarctic Ocean Shore d. Grassland 8. You find yourself in an area where there are snakes, hawks and coyotes. Based upon these animal populations, you are most likely in which ecosystem? a. Deciduous forest b. Hot Desert c. Grassland d. You cannot tell from this information 9. You are in an area where the ground is littered with what appear to be dry, dead leaves. You are most likely in which ecosystem? a. Deciduous forest b. Hot Desert c. Grassland d. You cannot tell from this information 10. This zone has the greatest concentration of plankton in a freshwater lake ecosystem: a. Profundal b. Littoral c. Limnetic 173
174 Journal Questions: 1. Suggest reasons why the information represented in the pyramid of numbers of animals of one of the ecosystems you studied may not truly represent that ecosystem. 2. According to your data, what is the ratio of third-order consumers to producers? Explain your answer. 3. Compare and contrast two of the ecosystems you studied. How is the energy conversion efficiency similar or different? 4. Does the population size increase or decrease at higher trophic levels in the pyramid of numbers of an ecosystem consisting of a tree, insects (that are herbivores) and birds feeding on the insects? Explain your answer. 5. What might happen to an ecological pyramid of numbers in a forest ecosystem if most of the deer were killed due to hunting by people and disease? 6. What would happen to an ecosystem if the decomposers disappeared? 7. Could there be a food chain without herbivores and carnivores? Explain. 174
175 Name: Date: Period: LabBench Activity 1: Diffusion & Osmosis Analysis of Results So that you might better understand the procedure for calculating water potential, here is a practice problem. Once you know the solute concentration, you can calculate solute potential using the following formula: Solute potential ( s ) = icrt Sample Problem i = The number of particles the molecule will make in water; for NaCl this would be 2; for sucrose or glucose, this number is 1 C = Molar concentration (from your experimental data) R = Pressure constant = liter bar/mole K T = Temperature in degrees Kelvin = C of solution The molar concentration of a sugar solution in an open beaker has been determined to be 0.3M. Calculate the solute potential at 27 degrees. Show your work and round your answer to the nearest hundredth. Answer: The pressure potential of a solution open to the air is zero. Since you know the solute potential of the solution, you can now calculate the water potential. Water potential ( ) = pressure potential ( p ) + solute potential ( s ). What is the water potential for this example? Show your work and round your answer to the nearest hundredth. Questions Refer to the following image to answer questions 1 3. Answer: Which beaker(s) contain(s) a solution that is hypertonic to the bag? a. Beaker 3 b. Beakers 2 and 4 c. Beakers 1, 2, and 5 d. Beaker 4 e. Beakers 3 and 4 175
176 2. Which bag would you predict to show the least change in mass at the end of the experiment? a. The bag in Beaker 1 b. The bag in Beaker 2 c. The bag in Beaker 3 d. The bag in Beaker 4 e. The bag in Beaker 5 3. Arrange the beakers in order of the mass of the bags inside them after the experiment has run for 30 minutes. List the bag that loses the most mass first. a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 b. 1, 5, 2, 3, 4 c. 4, 3, 2, 5, 1 d. 3, 2, 1, 4, 5 e. 2, 1, 5, 3, 4 Refer to the following image to answer questions 4 & In beaker B, what is the water potential of the distilled water in the beaker, and of the beet core? a. Water potential in the beaker = 0, water potential in the beet core = 0 b. Water potential in the beaker = 0, water potential in the beet core = 0.2 c. Water potential in the beaker = 0, water potential in the beet core = 0.2 d. Water potential in the beaker cannot be calculated, water potential in the beet core = 0.2 e. Water potential in the beaker cannot be calculated, water potential in the beet core = Which of the following statements is true for the diagrams? a. The beet core in beaker A is at equilibrium to the surrounding environment. b. The beet core in beaker B will lose water to the surrounding environment. c. The beet core in beaker B would be more turgid than the beet core in beaker A. d. The beet core in beaker A is likely to gain so much water that its cells will rupture. e. The cells in beet core B are likely to undergo plasmolysis. 176
177 Name: Date: Period: LabBench Activity 2: Enzyme Catalysis Analysis of Results Enzyme Action Over Time We can calculate the rate of a reaction by measuring, over time, either the disappearance of substrate (as in our catalase example) or the appearance of poduct (as in the above graph). For example, on the graph above, what is the rate, in moles/second, over the interval from 0 to 10 seconds? Rate = so for this example, the rate would be = = 0.7 moles/second Sample Problem Calculate the rate in moles/second between 40 and 50 seconds. Show your work below. Questions Refer to the following graph to answer questions 1 5. Answer: 1. During what time interval is the enzyme working at its maximum velocity? a seconds b seconds c seconds d. Over the entire time course 177
178 2. In order to keep the rate constant over the entire time course, which of the following should be done? a. Add more enzyme. b. Gradually increase the temperature after 60 seconds. c. Add more substrate. d. Add H 2 SO 4 after 60 seconds. 3. Which of the following graphs represents the rate of the reaction shown below? Notice that in the graphs below, the y-axis is number of molecules/sec. a. b. c. d. 4. What is the role of sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) in this experiment? a. It is the substrate on which catalase acts. b. It binds with the remaining hydrogen peroxide during titration. c. It accelerates the reaction between enzyme and substrate. d. It blocks the active site of the enzyme. e. It denatures the enzyme by altering the active site. 5. A student was performing a titration for this laboratory, and accidentally exceeded the endpoint. What would be the best step to obtain good data for this point? a. Estimate the amount of KMnO4 that was in excess, and subtract this from the result. b. Repeat the titration using the reserved remaining sample. c. Obtain data for this point from another lab group. d. Prepare a graph of the data without this point, and then read the estimated value from the graph. 178
179 Name: Date: Period: LabBench Activity 3: Mitosis & Meiosis Analysis of Results I Identify each phase of mitosis labeled in the diagram. Then, calculate the amount of time spent in each phase of the cell cycle and complete the data table. Assume that the total time required for a complete cell cycle for these cells is 24 hours. Note: The average time for onion root tip cells to complete the cell cycle is 24 hours = 1440 minutes. To calculate the time for each stage, do the following: % of cells in the stage 1440 minutes = number of minutes in the stage Phases: A = B = C = D = E = 179
180 Data Table Number of Cells % of Total Cells Counted Time in each stage Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total: Questions 1. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted. 2. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted. a. Interphase b. Prophase c. Metaphase d. Anaphase e. Telophase 3. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted. a. Interphase b. Prophase c. Metaphase d. Anaphase e. Telophase 4. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted. a. Interphase b. Prophase c. Metaphase d. Anaphase e. Telophase a. Interphase b. Prophase c. Metaphase d. Anaphase e. Telophase 180
181 Analysis of Results II Study this small section of a slide of Sordaria to determine if crossing over has occurred in the asci designated by an X. If the ascospores are arranged 4 dark/4 light, count the ascus as 'No crossing over.' If the arrangement of ascospores is in any other combination, count it as 'Crossing over.' (Keep track of your counts with paper and pencil.) In this exercise, we are interested only in asci that form when mating occurs between the black-spore strain and the tan-spore strain, so ignore any asci that have all black spores or all tan spores. Occasionally the asci rupture and spores escape. You can see them here as individual spores not in one of the possible arrangements, so don't include them in your count. 1. In the photo, how many asci marked with an X show no evidence of crossing over? 2. In the photo, how many asci marked with an X show evidence of crossing over? 3. In the photo, what is the total number of asci marked with an X? 4. What is the percent of crossovers? Take the number of asci with crossovers divided by total number of asci multiplied by 100. Show work. Answer: 5. For the sample shown here, what is the map distance between the gene for spore color and the centromere? Take the percent of crossovers divided by 2. Show work. Questions Answer: 1. Which of the following statements is correct? a. Crossing over occurs in prophase I of meiosis and metaphase of mitosis. b. DNA replication occurs once prior to mitosis and twice prior to meiosis. c. Both mitosis and meiosis result in daughter cells identical to the parent cells. d. Karyokinesis occurs once in mitosis and twice in meiosis. e. Synapsis occurs in prophase of mitosis. 2. The cell cycle in a certain cell type has a duration of 16 hours. The nuclei of 660 cells showed 13 cells in anaphase. What is the approximate duration of anaphase in these cells? a. 2 minutes b. 13 minutes c. 19 minutes d. 32 minutes e. 647 minutes 181
182 Base your answers to questions 3 & 4 on the following figure: 3. For an organism with a diploid number of 6, how are the chromosomes arranged during metaphase I of meiosis? a. A b. B c. C d. D 4. Which sketch shows the arrangement of chromosomes that you would expect to see in metaphase of mitosis for a cell with a diploid chromosome number of 6? a. A b. B c. C d. D Base your answers to questions 5 & 6 on the following information. A group of asci formed from crossing light-spored Sordaria with dark-spored produced the following results: Number of Asci Counted Spore Arrangement 7 4 light/4 dark spores 8 4 dark/4 light spores 3 2 light/2 dark/2 light/2 dark spores 4 2 dark/2 light/2 dark/2 light spores 1 2 dark/4 light/2 dark spores 2 2 light/4 dark/2 light spores 5. How many of these asci contain a spore arrangement that resulted from crossing over? a. 3 b. 7 c. 8 d. 10 e From this sample, calculate the map distance between the gene and centromere. a. 10 map units b. 20 map units c. 30 map units d. 40 map units 182
183 Name: Date: Period: LabBench Activity 4: Plant Pigments & Photosynthesis Analysis of Results I If you did a number of chromatographic separations, each for a different length of time, the pigments would migrate a different distance on each run. However, the migration of each pigment relative to the migration of the solvent would not change. This migration of pigment relative to migration of solvent is expressed as a constant, R f (Reference front). It can be calculated by using the formula: R f = Look at the black ink chromatogram to the left. Calculate the R f value for green. Show your work. Answer: Questions 1. Look again at the chromatogram you completed in the previous exercise. Which of the following is true for your chromatogram? a. The R f for carotene can be determined by dividing the distance the yellow-orange pigment (carotene) migrated by the distance the solvent front migrated. b. The R f value of chlorophyll b will be higher than the R f value for chlorophyll a. c. The molecules of xanthophyll are not easily dissolved in this solvent, and thus are probably larger in mass than the chlorophyll b molecules. d. If this same chromatogram were set up and run for twice as long, the R f values would be twice as great for each pigment. 2. If a different solvent were used for the chlorophyll chromatography described earlier, what results would you expect? a. The distances travelled by each pigment will be different, but the R f values will stay the same. b. The relative position of the bands will be different. c. The results will be the same if the time is held constant. d. The R f values of some pigments might exceed
184 3. What is the R f value for carotene calculated from the chromatogram below? a b c d e Analysis of Results II Based on your understanding of the light reactions of photosynthesis, draw in the approximate shapes of the curves you predict on the graphs below. Questions Refer to the following graphs for questions 1, 2, &
185 1. Which graph would be the most likely result of performing the photosynthesis experiment using fresh chloroplasts placed in light and DPIP? a. A b. B c. C d. D 2. What is the best explanation for graph B? a. The DPIP was too pale at the beginning of the experiment. b. The chloroplast solution was too concentrated. c. The experimenter used chloroplasts that were damaged and could not respond to light. d. The blank was not properly used to calibrate the spectrophotometer. 3. What effect would adding more DPIP to each experimental tube have on these results? a. Each curve would be shifted downward but would keep the same general shape. b. The curve in graph C would rise more steeply and level off sooner. c. The curve in graph A would have the same general shape as the curve in graph C. d. The chloroplasts would absorb more light energy, so there would be no change. 4. What is the role of DPIP in this experiment? a. It mimics the action of chlorophyll by absorbing light energy. b. It serves as an electron donor and blocks the formation of NADPH. c. It is an electron acceptor and is reduced by electrons from chlorophyll. d. It is bleached in the presence of light, and can be used to measure light levels. 5. Some students were not able to get many data points in this experiment because the solution went from blue to colorless in only 5 minutes for the unboiled chloroplasts exposed to light. What modification to the experiment do you think would be most likely to provide better results? a. Increase the number of drops of chloroplasts used from 3 to 5. b. Double the volume of DPIP so that the solution has a lower initial transmittance. c. Modify the blank so that the initial transmittance is higher. d. Use fresher spinach and prepare the chloroplast solution during the laboratory procedure. e. Change the wavelength at which readings are taken. 185
186 Name: Date: Period: LabBench Activity 5: Cell Respiration Analysis of Results After you have collected data for the amount of oxygen consumed over time by germinating and nongerminating peas at two different temperatures, you can compare the rates of respiration. Let's review how to calculate rate. Rate = slope of the line, or. In this case, Δ y is the change in volume, and Δ x is the change in time (10 min). What would be the rate of oxygen consumption if the respirometer readings were as shown here? Show work. Answer: Questions Refer to the following figure for questions 1, 2, &
187 1. Which is the following is a true statement based on the data? a. The amount of oxygen consumed by germinating corn at 22 C is approximately twice the amount of oxygen consumed by germinating corn at 12 C. b. The rate of oxygen consumption is the same in both germinating and nongerminating corn during the initial time period from 0 to 5 minutes. c. The rate of oxygen consumption in the germinating corn at 12 C at 10 minutes is 0.4 ml O 2 /minute. d. The rate of oxygen consumption is higher for nongerminating corn at 12 C than at 22 C. e. If the experiment were run for 30 minutes, the rate of oxygen consumption would decrease 2. What is the rate of oxygen consumption in germinating corn at 12 C? a ml/min b ml/min c. 0.8 ml/min d ml/min 3. Which of the following conclusions is supported by the data? a. The rate of respiration is higher in nongerminating seeds than in germinating seeds. b. Nongerminating peas are not alive, and show no difference in rate of respiration at different temperatures. c. The rate of respiration in the germinating seeds would have been higher if the experiment were conducted in sunlight. d. The rate of respiration increases as the temperature increases in both germinating and nongerminating seeds. e. The amount of oxygen consumed could be increased if pea seeds were substituted for corn seeds. 4. What is the role of KOH in this experiment? a. It serves as an electron donor to promote cellular respiration. b. As KOH breaks down, the oxygen needed for cellular respiration is released. c. It serves as a temporary energy source for the respiring organism. d. It binds with carbon dioxide to form a solid, preventing CO 2 production from affecting gas volume. e. Its attraction for water will cause water to enter the respirometer. 187
188 Name: Date: Period: LabBench Activity 6: Molecular Biology Analysis of Results I If there is no ampicillin in the agar, E. coli will cover the plate with so many cells it is called a 'lawn' of cells. Only transformed cells can grow on agar with ampicillin. Since only some of the cells exposed to the amp R plasmids will actually take them in, only some cells will be transformed. Thus you will see only individual colonies on the plate. If none of the sensitive E. coli cells have been transformed, nothing will grow on the agar with ampicillin. Label the Results of Your Experiment Label plates I, II, III, and IV based on the following choices: a. LB agar without ampicillin, +amp R cells b. LB agar without ampicillin, amp R cells c. LB agar with ampicillin, +amp R cells d. LB agar with ampicillin, amp R cells Choice: Choice: Choice: Choice: 188
189 Questions Refer to the following information and images of Plates I, II, III, and IV to answer questions 1 4. In a molecular biology laboratory, a student obtained competent E. coli cells and used a common transformation procedure to induce the uptake of plasmid DNA with a gene for resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. The results below were obtained. 1. On which petri dish do only transformed cells grow? a. Plate I b. Plate II c. Plate III d. Plate IV 2. Which of the plates is used as a control to show that nontransformed E. coli will not grow in the presence of kanamycin? a. Plate I b. Plate II c. Plate III d. Plate IV 3. If a student wants to verify that transformation has occurred, which of the following procedures should she use? a. Spread cells from Plate I onto a plate with LB agar; incubate. b. Spread cells from Plate II onto a plate with LB agar; incubate. c. Repeat the initial spread of kan R cells onto plate IV to eliminate possible experimental error. d. Spread cells from Plate II onto a plate with LB agar with kanamycin; incubate. e. Spread cells from Plate III onto a plate with LB agar and also onto a plate with LB agar with kanamycin; incubate 4. During the course of an E. coli transformation laboratory, a student forgot to mark the culture tube that received the kanamycin-resistant plasmids. The student proceeds with the laboratory because he thinks that he will be able to determine from his results which culture tube contained cells that may have undergone transformation. Which plate would be most likely to indicate transformed cells? a. A plate with a lawn of cells growing on LB agar with kanamycin. b. A plate with a lawn of cells growing on LB agar without kanamycin. c. A plate with 100 colonies growing on LB agar with kanamycin. d. A plate with 100 colonies growing on LB agar without kanamycin. 189
190 Refer to the following information and images of Plates I, II, III, and IV to answer questions 5 & 6. A student has forgotten which antibiotic plasmid she used in her E. coli transformation. It could have been kanamycin, ampicillin, or tetracycline. She decides to make up a special set of plates to determine the type of antibiotic used. The plates below show the results of the test. 5. Which antibiotic plasmid has been used? a. Kanamycin b. Ampicillin c. Tetracycline 6. What is the explanation for these results? a. Plates I and II each contain a plasmid that is resistant to that antibiotic. b. Plate III has antibiotic agar, but E. coli that has been transformed to be resistant to tetracycline can grow. c. Plate IV has no antibiotic. d. There are no tetracycline-resistant cells on Plate II. Analysis of Results II Each fragment of DNA is a particular number of nucleotides, or base pairs, long. When researchers want to determine the size of DNA fragments produced with particular restriction enzymes, they run the unknown DNA alongside DNA with known fragment sizes. The known DNA acts as a marker. In your laboratory, the DNA that has been cut with HindIII is the marker; you will use it to help you determine the fragment sizes in the EcoRI digest. On the next pages we go through the procedure using HindIII and two generalized DNA samples. Making a Standard Curve for HindIII DNA Fragments If you know the fragment sizes in the HindIII digest, how do you determine the fragment sizes in an unknown sample? You use data from the marker to prepare a standard curve, which will provide a standard for comparison to the unknown fragment sizes. Using a standard to estimate an unknown is sometimes called 'interpolation'; you will interpolate the size of the unknown fragments. You begin by making a standard curve for the known sample, DNA plus HindIII. Measure the distance each HindIII fragment migrated on the gel and then complete the chart. It is very difficult to get exact numbers as you read this graph. If your response is in a close range, that is acceptable. 190
191 Actual Base Pairs (bp) Measured Distance (mm) 23, Questions 1. Which of the following statements is correct? a. Longer DNA fragments migrate farther than shorter fragments. b. Migration distance is inversely proportional to the fragment size. c. Positively charged DNA migrates more rapidly than negatively charged DNA. d. Uncut DNA migrates farther than DNA cut with restriction enzymes 2. How many base pairs is the fragment circled in red below? a ml/min b ml/min c. 0.8 ml/min d ml/min 191
192 3. An instructor had her students perform this laboratory beginning with setting up their own restriction enzyme digests. One team of students had results that looked like those at the left. What is the most likely explanation for these results? a. The students did not allow enough time for the electrophoresis separation. b. The agarose prepartion was faulty. c. The methylene blue did not stain the DNA evenly. d. The restriction enzyme EcoRI did not function properly. e. The voltage was set too low on the apparatus. Below is a plasmid with restriction sites for BamHI and EcoRI. Several restriction digests were done using these two enzymes either alone or in combination. Use the figure to answer questions 4 6. Hint: Begin by determining the number and size of the fragments produced with each enzyme. 'kb' stands for kilobases, or thousands of base pairs Which lane shows a digest with BamHI only? a. I b. II c. III d. IV 5. Which lane shows a digest with EcoRI only? a. I b. II c. III d. IV 6. Which lane shows the fragments produced when the plasmid was incubated with both EcoRI and BamH1? a. I b. II c. III d. IV
193 7. A restriction enzyme acts on the following DNA segment by cutting both strands between adjacent thymine and cytosine nucleotides..tcgcga...agcgct.. Which of the following pairs of sequences indicates the sticky ends that are formed? a..gcgc CGCG.. b..tcgc TCGC.. c..t T.. d..ga GA.. e..gcgc GCGC 8. A segment of DNA has two restriction sites I and II. When incubated with restriction enzymes I and II, three fragments will be formed a, b, and c. Which of the following gels produced by electrophoresis would represent the separation and identity of these fragments? a. A b. B c. C d. D 193
194 Name: Date: Period: LabBench Activity 7: Genetics of Organisms Analysis of Results In the laboratory you breed your flies and analyze the results of the breeding through the F 2 generation. The exercises below are designed to help you understand the patterns of inheritance in your fly populations. Reversing the Procedure One way to discover patterns of inheritance is by working backward. In other words, you determine the genotype of the original parental generation by careful analysis of the F 1 and F 2 generations. Let's examine two sample cases that trace eye color. For each, look at the data chart with the number of male and female flies exhibiting each eye color. Then answer the questions. Case 1 Case 2 Based on the data obtained, this cross is a. Monohybrid b. Dihybrid This cross is: a. Sex-linked b. Autosomal Based on the data obtained, this cross is: a. Sex-linked b. Autosomal From the data presented, determine the genotype of the parental generation (before the F1 generation; not shown here). + = wild type (red eyes) w = white eyes a. X + X + X + Y b. X + X w X + Y c. X + X + X w Y d. X w X w X w Y 194
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